HHH 



vM 



I 




Book JLi 

Copyright X° 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



/ 



A 

CHURCH HISTORY 

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 

BY 

NILS LOVGREN 

BISHOP OF VESTERAs 

WITH A SERIES OF BIOGRAPHIES 

BY . 

AUGUST EDMAN 

ADJUNCT AT LULEA "h. ALLM. LAROVERK" 

TRANSLATED 

BY 

M. WAHLSTROM and C. W. FOSS 



ROCK ISLAND, ILL., 
AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN. 



V 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two CoDies Received 

OCT 15 1906 

Cepyrifht Entry , 

A3, /ft (• 

CLASS A XXC, No, 

COPY B. / 



Copyright. 1906. 



ROCK ISLAND, ILL. 

AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS 
1906 



THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 



As there are no suitable text-books in English in church history 
for schools and colleges, and as this leant has been long felt at the 
institutions of our synod, the Board of Augustana Book Concern 
authorized the translation of Bishop Nils Lofgren' s Church History 
for publication. This wfyrk has now been completed. It is mainly 
a literal translation, but as- ike original was written for the use of 
schools in Sweden a few changes and additions have of necessity 
been made to adapt it for use in this country. Thus two entire 
chapters have been added: Chapter G on the Religious Denomina- 
tions in America, and Chapter H on the Lutheran Church in 
America, The last Chapter, on Missions, is also new material 
with the exception of a few paragraphs and the Retrospect, 

The orginal has passed through eight editions. In the transla- 
tion no special edition has been followed, but several have been 
consulted. The illustrations used in the original have been retained. 
A few have been added for the additional chapters. 

It is to be hoped that this ivork may be as acceptable to the 
teacher and student in its new form as it has been in its original. 

Rock Island, August, 1906. 



THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

to the eighth edition 



This work aims to serve both as a text-book and a reader, and, 
hence, it contains two distinct parts. The text part forms a complete 
whole by itself and is printed in larger type. The second part 
forms a series of related topics and is printed in smaller type. The 
former should be carefully studied and thoroughly learned, while 
the second part may be read in the class-room or privately by each 
pupil. Such reading may net but a small store to memory, but it 
ivill add new traces to the mental picture which one must have of 
an event or a period to have any real knowledge of the same. 

The illustrations are not many. The aim has been to present 
specimens of various styles of church architecture, official vestments, 
the garb of different orders, and pictures of celebrated men. That 
the selection has been made with special reference to our own coun- 
try each teacher will recognize as proper. Many might have pre- 
ferred to see some of the great masterpieces of art as for instance the 
cathedral of Cologne, but such can be seen in any oj the ordinary 
works of geography. 

Some may regard the text part as too long. On this point it may 
be remarked that the ease of learning a certain subject does not 
always depend on the number of pages in a book, and further it is 
easier to omit certain portions of the text than to make additions to 
it. There are more dates given than may be necessary for the pupil 
to commit for the reason that in matters of this kind opinions differ 
as to what is important and unimportant, and, again, it may be 
convenient to have the dates for reference though they be not com- 
mitted. 



THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

Wherever political and church history occupy common ground 
the author has followed the texts most generally used in Swedish 
and general history. It lightens the burden of the learner con- 
siderably if he may have the same matter presented in the same 
form. 

May this little work in some measure serve to acquaint the young 
with the wonderful way in which the Lord has led his Church in 
spite of all her weaknesses and errors forward toward the high goal 
he has set before her. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Introduction 1 

The Ancient Era: 

A. The Period of the Martyrs: 

a. The Founding of the Church, its Extension and Estab- 
lishment under the direction of the Apostles 4 

b. The Persecutions of the Christians by the Pagans. The 
Growth of the Church '.. 9 

c. The Constitution and Cultus 15 

d. The Life and Discipline in the Church 26 

e. The Doctrine 31 

B. The Period of Doctrinal Development: 

a. The Victory of Christianity over Paganism. The Con- 
stitution and Cultus of the Church 45 

b. The Life 56 

c. The Doctrine 65 

d. The Extension of the Church 83 

The Mediaeval Era: 

a. The Territorial Changes 89 

b. The Constitution and Cultus 100 

c. The Life and Doctrine 123 

The Modern Era: 

A. The Reformation: 

a. The Reformation in Germany 161 

b. The Reformation in Switzerland 199 

c. The Catholic Counter-Reformation 212 

B. The Lutheran Church: 

a. The Territory of the Lutheran Church 218 

b. The Internal Development of the Lutheran Church: 

1. Doctrinal Controversies 230 

2. Orthodoxy and Pietism 235 

3. The Period of Illumination 250 

4. The Nineteenth Century 254 

C. The Reformed Church 262 



VIII CONTENTS 

Pag. 

D. The Sects 272 

E. The Roman Catholic Church 289 

F. The Greek Church 296 

G. The Religious Denominations in America 300 

H. The Lutheran Church in America 311 

I. The Propagation of the Gospel 338 

The Index 349 



INTRODUCTION. 



1. The Object of Church History and its Divisions. The object of 
Church History is to present a general delineation of the develop- 
ment of the Christian Church from her foundation to the present 
day. At certain epochs of this development new forces have in an 
unusual degree entered into the service of the Church, and new 
demands have been made upon her in the prosecution of her work. 
These epochs mark the boundaries between three main divisions of 
Church History: the Ancient Era, the Mediaeval Era, and the Modern 
Era. The Ancient Era may be subdivided into two periods: the 
Period of the Martyrs and the Period of Doctrinal Development. 

2. The Fulness of Time. Ever since the time the promise was 
given that the seed of the woman should bruise the serpent's head, 
God's world-economy has been based upon the plan of man's salva- 
tion through Christ. In the Old Testament the aim was to prepare 
mankind to receive Christ, when he came. This preparation was 
carried on not only among the Jews, but also among the Gentiles, 
and, in spite of the obstacles which sin and human frailties laid in 
the way, in the "fulness of time," the Divine plan was carried out. 

At that time, when the Old Testament was merged into the New, 
three things especially prove that the age was ripe for receiving 
the Saviour of the world. The nations had exhausted their resources 
and had found that they could not themselves alone provide for their true 
happiness. Among them was found a small remnant which because of 
their hunger and thirst after righteousness were capable of receiving the 
neiv light and life of Christianity. Furthermore, the outward conditions 
were favorable to the introduction and establishment of the Christian 
Church in the world. 

The people of Israel God himself had chosen and fostered to 
be the people of his covenant, and he had bestowed on them a whole 
series of divine revelations both in word and deed. On account 
of sin, Israel was often chastised, and even carried into captivity 
by the Gentiles. From the last captivity — the Babylonian — 
many Israelites were allowed to return to the land of their fathers. 

l 



2 INTRODUCTION 

As these were mostly from the tribe of Judah, their descendants 
were called Jews. Captivity with its great sufferings had taken 
away from them their former inclination toward idolatry; now they 
adhered strictly to the observance of the law, both in divine worship 
and in daily life. Nevertheless, there came a deep spiritual decline. 
On the one hand unbelief and materialistic pleasure-seeking pre- 
vailed (Sadduceeism) , on the other a false dependence on an out- 
ward observance of the law and the traditions of the elders (Phar- 
iseeism). This prevented a real consciousness of sin and a true 
longing for the coming Saviour. In him they saw only a deliverer 
from foreign oppression and one who should help them to acquire 
temporal happiness and tranquillity. These national Messianic 
hopes created and nourished a spirit of insubordination against the 
Roman government, which sooner or later must lead to the over- 
throw of the Jewish state. 

The Gentiles God had seemingly allowed to go their own way. 
To them he gave no new revelation. That knowledge of God which 
they had inherited from the primitive age of man they had lost. 
They had ceased to honor and praise God, and, as a consequence, they 
worshiped the creature instead of the creator. But even in this 
degenerate state, their religions contained many germs of truth, 
which for a time gave support and comfort to their religious crav- 
ings. The more civilization developed, the more the faults of the 
heathen religions became manifest, and at the time of the establish- 
ment of the Christian Church, there prevailed among the representa- 
tive civilized nations a complete state of moral and religious dissolu- 
tion. Some sought to gain a higher light by an intermingling of sever- 
al religions, others threw away with a haughty scorn all religious 
ideas, and looked upon all talk of supernatural things as mere nurs- 
ery-tales. Close upon the religious decline followed the moral. 
Unrestrained seeking after pleasure was coupled with wanton 
cruelty; eagerness for filthy lucre nurtured servile submission to 
those in power, and dishonesty in daily life. The moral loss which 
mankind had sustained could not be concealed, much less remedied by 
an art which was now the obedient servant of immorality and the 
passions. Philosophical speculation was not able to give a new 
impulse to the world, after it had become so bankrupt in all real 
knowledge as to declare: nothing can he known ivith certainty, not 
even that nothing can he knoivn. The development of power which 
had taken place within the Roman Empire was rather a scourge 



INTRODUCTION 3 

than a help to the nations. When we consider all this we are 
forced to admit that humanity would have been doomed, had not 
Christ come as its deliverer. 

But right amidst this depraved generation there lived a few, 
mostly of the lower class, who in secret sighed beneath the burden of 
their own guilt and the depravity of the age, and cherished an 
earnest, though often indistinct, longing for a deliverer from this 
evil. Not to mention those who as educators, forerunners, and 
disciples stood near Christ, we call to mind the shepherds of Beth- 
lehem, Simeon, and Hannah, and the inhabitants of Sychar. That 
even among the heathen there was found susceptibility for a higher 
religious life is proved not only by such persons as the Wise Men 
from the East, the Centurion at Capernaum, and the Syro- 
Phoenician Woman, but also by the numerous proselytes who aban- 
doned idolatry and worshiped the God of Israel. 

An important task was already accomplished for Christianity 
by the breaking down of the barriers which formerly had separated 
the nations. Under the sceptre of Rome the most powerful nations 
of the age were united, and between them arose a lively intercom- 
munication. By means of a single language — the Greek — one 
could make himself understood throughout the whole Roman Em- 
pire. This language was by its plasticity and richness in forms 
destined to be the vessel wherein the rich contents of Christian 
revelation could be offered to the Graeco-Roman world. The 
highstrung education of the classic nations had created forms for 
intellectual life which by their keenness, perspicuity, profusion, 
and many-sidedness offered the most excellent means for the formal 
presentation and development of Christianity. In addition to this, 
J ewish colonies were found in most of the important cities both in 
the Orient and the Occident. Through them Jewish monotheism and 
the Jewish Messianic expectations became known in wide circles, 
and thus a beginning had been made to implant ideas of the true 
religion in the minds of many of the heathen. The Jewish Syna- 
gogue in many places also became a bridge for bringing the gospel 
message over to the heathen. 

When the soil was thus prepared, the time had come for the 
founding and establishment of the Christian Church in the world. 



THE ANCIENT ERA. 

(A. D. 30-600.) 



A. THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS. 

(A. D. 30-324.) 

a. The Founding of the Church, its Extension, and 

Establishment under the Direction of the Apostles 

until about J00 A. D. 

3. The Founding of the Church and its first Propagation 
among the Jews (Era of Peter). The Church is that 
community within which the Holy Ghost dwells and 
works in the world. It dates its existence from the first 
day of Pentecost after the resurrection of Jesus, as the 
Holy Ghost on that day was poured out upon the 
disciples of Christ. (Acts 2.) The Church could then be 
likened unto a grain of mustard seed (Matt. 13: 
31-32) planted in the great field of the world, but at 
the same time it showed by a strong inward and out- 
ward development the great vital power that dwelt 
within it. The Church was a leaven capable of permeat- 
ing all the conditions of mankind. 

In accordance with the injunction of Christ (Actsl: 8) 
the Apostles labored first among the Jews beginning at 
their capital city Jerusalem. Peter led the work among 
the Jews. At pentecost, referred to above, he delivered 
his first public sermon. Not less than about three thou- 
sand souls were converted to the Christian faith and 



THE PERIOD OF THE APOSTLES 5 

were baptized. After this the Lord added to the Church 
daily such as should be saved. 

To begin with the Christians were allowed to enjoy 
quiet, and favor with all the people. But after a few 
years there broke out a persecution, during which 
Stephen suffered death, and in which Saul, afterwards 
called Paul, took an active part, A. D. 36 (Acts 7 
and 8). Then the members of the Church were scattered 
to different parts of Palestine, and to cities beyond it. 
After that time there arose many congregations of 
Christian Jews, who received from their countrymen, by 
way of reproach, the name of Nazarenes. These were 
continually subjected to a growing hatred from the un- 
believing Jews, and this hatred oftentimes gave itself 
vent in persecutions. A persecution of this kind was 
instigated by Herod Agrippa I. about the year 44, and 
cost James the Elder his life. Shortly before the de- 
struction of Jerusalem another persecution is said to 
have broken out in which James the Just, the brother 
of the Lord, elder of the church in Jerusalem, was one of 
the victims. After the fall of Jerusalem (A. D. 70) the 
Jews were unable further to take violent measures 
against the Christians. 

4. The first Dissemination of Christianity among the Gentiles 
(Era of Paul). When Christianity was firmly established 
among the Jews, it was time to bring it also to the Gen- 
tiles. In the same measure as the Jews in their blind- 
ness rejected the gospel, was the center of gravity of the 
Christian Church transferred to the Gentile world. Im- 
mediately after the first persecution,Paulwasin a mirac- 
ulous way converted to Christianity, and called as the 
Apostle of the Gentiles (A. D. 37), and somewhat later 
Peter baptized, as the first fruits of the Gentile world, 
the Centurion Cornelius of Csesarea and his house (Acts 



6 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

10). The first mixed congregation of converted Jews and 
Gentiles arose at Antioch, and here it was that the con- 
fessors of Christ were first called Christians. To this 
church Paul was called at the time of the persecution of 
Herod Agrippa, and from this point he started on his 
three great missionary journeys (A. D. 45-59) which ex- 
tended to Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece. He la- 
bored especially in the great cities of Ephesus and Corinth. 
Also in Rome, where a Christian Church had early been 
established, he was permitted, during a captivity of two 
years, to preach the gospel of Christ. Thus he either 
founded or confirmed the Christian Church in the most 
important cities of the Roman domain both in Asia and 
Europe. These cities afterwards became suitable start- 
ing-points for the spread of Christianity to neighboring 
places. 

5. The Liberation of the Christians from the Restraint of 
the Jewish Law. The Twelve Apostles were at first uncer- 
tain, as to whether or not Gentiles should be circumcised 
and obliged to live up to the Mosaic law, before they 
could be baptized. Peter was freed from this uncertainty 
by a special revelation (Acts 10). To Paul, on the other 
hand, it seems from the beginning to have been evident 
that the Christians should be free from the restraint of 
the Jewish law. But all Christian Jews could not share 
with him this liberal view. In the various churches there 
arose Jewish zealots, who endeavored to establish an op- 
posite opinion. The point in question was decided at 
the assembly of the Apostles in Jerusalem (A. D. 50). 
Here the freedom of the converted heathen from the 
precepts of the ceremonial law of the Old Testament was 
unanimously accepted. That this freedom applies to all 
Christians Paul has set forth with the strongest em- 
phasis^ especially in his Epistle to the Galatians, and 



THE PERIOp OF THE APOSTLES 7 

this he did in direct opposition to the zealots for the 
law, who still continued for a time to disturb the peace 
of the Church. 

6. The Establishment of the Christian Church (Eraof John). 
John survived the other Apostles (f about 100 A. D.). 
He devoted his old age to the great work of caring for 
the young Church, superintending her sound develop- 
ment. From Ephesus, where he dwelt most' of the time, 
he took charge especially of the churches in Asia Minor. 
He labored to the end that the Church might attain 
that maturity which it needed, when without the imme- 
diate direction of the Apostles it should carry out its 
high calling to be the salt of the earth and the light of 
the world. At the time of the death of John churches 
were found in all parts of the Roman Empire and even 
beyond its boundaries. 

7. Our knowledge concerning the subsequent Labors and Des- 
tinies of the Apostles. Besides that which the books of the 
New Testament relate about the life and labors of the 
Apostles, we possess a meagre and oftentimes unreliable 
tradition. 

Peter is said to have labored in the countries east of Palestine. 
According to the unanimous verdict of tradition, he ended his days 
in Rome as a martyr in the persecution under Nero. He died on 
the cross. But when from a feeling of humility he deemed it too 
great an honor to die in the same position as his Master, he is said 
to have asked to be crucified with his head downward, which was 
granted. The assertion of the Roman Catholic Church that Peter\ 
labored twenty-five years as bishop in Rome is evidently without J 
foundation. / 

It is assumed, that Paid was liberated from his first captivity in 
Rome, and that he traveled far and wide as a gospel messenger, 
and came even as far as Spain. After having enjoyed liberty for 
some three years he -was again taken prisoner and beheaded at 
Rome (A. D. 67). 



3 



THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 




John died a natural death. He lived for a long time after the 
death of the other Apostles, and died at the close of the first cen- 
tury. Yet he had to suffer for the cause of his Master. During 
one of the persecutions (most likely that of Domitian) he was exiled 
to Patmos, a small island in the Aegean sea. It was here that he 
was favored with the visions related in his Apocalypse. Afterwards 
he was allowed to return to Ephesus. Of his love and his pastoral 
faithfulness the New Testament writings which bear his name give 
strong evidence. A beautiful testimony of the above named qualities 
is a narrative that has reached us from those times. During one of 
his apostolic journeys he saw a young man in Smyrna, whose noble 
appearance attracted his attention. He gave this young man over 
to the special care of the bishop and continued his journey. During 

another visit he inquired of 
the bishop about the young 
man. The bishop answered em- 
barrassed, "He is dead, dead 
before God; he has left the 
ways of the Lord, and has be- 
come the leader of a band of 
robbers. ' ' The Apostle in spite 
of remonstrances repaired im- 
mediately to the rendezvous 
of the robbers. He was found 
by some members of the gang 
The Greek Cross an( j w ithout opposition taken 
(Andrew's Cross). . ., ,. , 

prisoner. At his own request 
he was brought before their chief. When the latter perceived at a 
distance the venerable Apostle, he was seized with a feeling of 
shame and fled. But John hastened after him and cried, "My 
son, why fleest thou from thy father, an unarmed old man? Fear 
not, there is yet hope for thee. Believe me, Christ has sent me." 
The young man stood trembling, threw away his weapons, and 
burst into a flood of tears. But John embraced him, and kissed 
him, and brought him back to the church. Through the love and 
admonitions of the Apostle he was again united as a living member 
with the church. 

Of the other Apostles tradition holds that Andrew brought the 
gospel to Scythia, Philip to Phrygia, Bartholomew to Armenia, 
Thomas to India, Matthew to Ethiopia, and Simon of Cana to 



A 



j 



The Latin Cross 
(Christ's Cross). 



PERSECUTIONS 9 

Mesopotamia. Faithfully they carried out their apostolic mission 
and seem (probably with the exception of Philip) to have died as 
martyrs. 

b. The Persecutions of the Christians by the Pagans. 
The Growth of the Church. 

8. The Causes and Progress of the Persecutions. It 
was not long before the Christians were subjected to 
the most bitter persecutions from the pagans. These 
were stirred up both by the Roman government and the 
heathen populace. The chief cause was the fact that the 
Christians led a godly life which the ungodly world 
could not bear (2 Tim. 3: 12). In addition to this there 
were various external causes. Of the Emperors and 
statesmen a few seem to have started the persecutions 
from cruelty and thirst for blood (e. g. Nero); but the 
greater number were actuated by political motives. They 
believed the state to be seriously threatened by a fac- 
tion, that worked successfully for the overthrow of the 
religion upon which the Roman state was based, and 
that refused to bestow upon the Emperor the customary 
idolatrous veneration. The Christians were suspected 
of political conspiracies, for their devotional gatherings 
were secret meetings. The heathen populace detested 
the Christians as godless, for they had no images nor 
sacrifices; as immoral because of false reports, e. g. that 
their public worship was connected with licentiousness 
and child-murder ; as dangerous to the state, for it was 
generally assumed that their apostasy from the old 
gods had brought upon the land the many calamities 
which then afflicted the various provinces of the 
Empire. 

Under such circumstances a struggle for life and death 
between paganism and Christianity became inevitable- 



10 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

The heathens, as a rule, resorted to outward violence ; 
the Christians set against it an unflinching faith, a fear- 
less confession, a self-sacrificing love, and a serene pa- 
tience. The persecutions flamed up sometimes in special 
localities, sometimes throughout the whole Empire, and 
lasted with some interruptions to the beginning of the 
fourth century. Those that originated from the govern- 
ment were the most severe. Among them we notice 
especially that under Nero (A. D. 64-68), which was the 
first and includes among its victims the Apostles Paul 
and Peter (about 67 A. D.); that under Decius (about 
250 A. D.) which was the first general one and was 
especially directed against the elders of the Church; that 
under Diocletian (A. D. 303-311) which was the last and 
the severest of all. In this persecution the fury was di- 
rected not only against the persons of the Christians 
but also against their sacred writings. 

Already by the law of the twelve tables, the exercise of strange 
religious worship was prohibited in the Roman Empire. Afterwards 
the conquered nations were for political reasons allowed to retain 
their own mode of divine worship. Even the Jews enjoyed the same 
privilege. The Christians were likewise favored as long as they 
were looked upon by the Roman statesmen as a sect of the Jew- 
ish religion. But when the distinctive difference between Chris- 
tianity and the Jewish faith was understood, Christianity was no 
longer protected by any law whatever. When in addition to this 
Christianity was not contented with being tolerated by the side of 
the other religions, but stood forth with unmistakable claims of 
being the only religion that would prevail, it is easily understood 
that even the noblest of the Emperors who were devoted to religion 
and state either winked at persecutions or even stirred them up. 
They could the more easily be induced to do so, since their natural 
prejudice against the Christians was kept up and strengthened by 
the heathen priests, manufacturers and venders of images of the 
gods, and others who thought their private interests were threatened 
by the progress of Christianity. 

Under the Emperor Nero Rome was devastated in the year 64 by 



PERSECUTIONS 11 

a conflagration. The Emperor was generally charged with being its 
originator. To shield himself he accused the Christians and raged 
against them with wanton cruelty. Some were sewed into skins 
of wild beasts and were thrown to the dogs to be torn to pieces. 
Others were covered with wax and tar, impaled in the imperial 
gardens and set on fire, to serve as torches during the nightly 
carousals. 

Domitian (A. D. 81—96) condemned out of avarice a number of 
Christians and confiscated their property. He had heard about the 
kingdom of Christ and feared that this might become a dangerous 
rival. Accordingly he caused two of the relatives of Christ in the 
flesh to be brought to Rome. When he, however, saw their callous 
hands, he became convinced that they busied themselves with other 
things than political cabals. 

Trajan (A. D. 98-117) renewed an old law against secret societies. 
Among such organizations the Christian churches were numbered. 
Many Christians who continued steadfast in their faith were thus 
put to death by the governor of Bithynia, Pliny the Younger. When, 
however, the number of the accused became very great, and it was 
manifest from the most searching trials that the Christians were 
not guilty of any civil or moral offence, and they could only be 
charged, according to Pliny, with a stubborn superstition, the 
governor hesitated and asked for further orders from the Em- 
peror. The latter replied that the Christians ought not to be 
hunted up, nor ought any attention be paid to anonymous accusa- 
tions, but capital punishment ought to be inflicted upon every one 
who was openly accused of being a Christian and who refused to 
sacrifice to the gods. The persecution extended as far as Syria and 
Palestine. It was here that the aged bishop Simeon of Jerusalem, 
successor of James the Just and one of the relatives of Christ, suf- 
fered death by crucifixion (A. D. 107). Ignatius of Antioch, a 
disciple of the Apostles, suffered martyrdom at this time. 

Under Hadrian (A. D. 117-138) and Antoninus Pius (A. D. 138 
—161) the Christians enjoyed rest. But with the accession of Mar- 
cus Aurelius (A. D. 161—180) conditions changed. The Emperor 
Aurelius who in other respects was a mild and just ruler, was car- 
ried away by his prejudices against Christianity, and in his stoic* 
wisdom he was too haughty to acquaint himself with a doctrine 
that had been preached by a few poor Galilean fishermen, and, 
therefore, he allowed the fury of the heathen people to vent itself 



12 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

upon the adherents of this faith. The persecutions took a 
new form by the detective system of hunting out the Christians 
and compelling them by cruel torture to deny Christ. Thus the 
sufferings of the Church were increased, but the courage of the 
faithful confessors of Christ celebrated new triumphs. In Rome 
Justin Martyr fell a victim to the hatred of the philosophers. In 
Gaul and Asia Minor the persecutions raged the fiercest. Polycarp, 
bishop of Smyrna, won the martyr's crown during this period. He 
died with the declaration that he would not deny the Saviour, whom 
he had served for 86 years, and from whom he had received nothing 
but benefactions. 

When Marcus Aurelius was no more, the lot of the Christians 
became somewhat endurable. This condition continued during a 
part of the reign of Septimus Severus (A. D. 193—211). This 
Emperor to begin with showed himself well-disposed towards the 
Christians. The cause of this seems to have been the fact that 
he had been cured from a severe illness through a Christian slave by 
the anointment with oil (Jas. 5: 14). Notwithstanding the favor 
of the Emperor the Christians in the various provinces had to suffer 
much from the fury of the common people, and from the rapacity 
of the governors. When the Emperor finally on account of political 
suspicions changed his mind, and in 202 issued an edict which on 
penalty of severe punishment forbade all conversion to Christianity, 
nothing more was needed to cause those who already were Christians 
to be exposed to most cruel sufferings. Their persecutors always 
found some means to retrench themselves behind the imperial edict. 

From the time of this persecution we have accounts of several 
martyrs among whom two women Perpetua and Felicitas of Car- 
thage are the best known. The former was a woman of high rank, 
the latter was a female slave. Both were catechumens, and had 
not yet received baptism when they were arrested. They remained, 
however, steadfast in their confession and were baptized in the 
midst of the most painful death. Perpetua had to sever many ten- 
der ties before she met death. Her father implored her from time to 
time with the most pathetic appeals that she should not bring dis- 
honor upon him and his house ; he reminded her of her young son 
who would be motherless after her departure. Even the judge 
begged her kindly to consider well her course, and sacrifice for the 
health of the Emperor, he would then set her free. All this kindness 
touched her deeply, yet she wavered not, but held to her confession 



PERSECUTIONS 13 

that she was a Christian. Finally she together with her friend 
Felicitas and a few other young Christians was condemned to be 
thrown before wild beasts. 

The execution took place in the arena of the amphitheater in 
the presence of a curious mob. At that time the people found 
pleasure in seeing how human beings were torn to pieces by wild 
beasts, and especially did the heathen delight in beholding the suf- 
ferings of the hated Christians. For Perpetua and Felicitas a wild 
cow had been selected. Clothed in wide fluttering garments they 
were thrown before the cow which tossed and wounded them cruelly 
with her horns. The feeble women endured with great fortitude 
the pains thus caused, and it is said of Perpetua that she though 
seriously hurt sought to help her weaker sister in the faith, and that 
she adjusted her hair and clothing which had been disarranged so 
that she could meet death with a bearing that was indicative of joy 
instead of sorrow. At last they together with some other martyrs 
were brought forth to receive the finishing blow. Being faithful 
unto death they obtained the crown of life. 

During the succeeding Emperors followed a time of quiet. 
Alexander Severus (A. D. 222—235) had placed an image of Christ 
beside his lares in his chapel, and the Emperor Philip the Arabian 
showed the Christians such great favors that it was generally 
believed that he had become a Christian. But after this calm came 
the persecution under Decius. This Emperor issued in 250 an edict 
which left to the Christians the alternative of denying Christ and 
sacrificing to the gods or being punished for high treason. The 
edict was carried out with all severity. Now it became manifest 
that the gain of the Church during the time of calm was not all 
genuine gold. The number of apostates was very great. Some 
sacrificed to the idols to save their lives, others bought from venal 
officers false certificates that they had sacrificed, others gave at 
the trial a false statement of their relations to Christianity. We 
must not, however, judge them who with the most horrible tortures 
awaiting them faltered and fell. Never before had the Christian 
Church been in such distress as then. So much the more must we 
esteem the fidelity of those who remained steadfast. Several 
escaped with their lives, after they had borne, with patience the 
loss of their possessions, or fearful tortures, or banishment. They 
were called confessors. Others died as martyrs and sealed their 
faith with their life-blood. Some were induced by mistaken 



14 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

enthusiasm to seek martyrdom. The persecution abated somewhat, 
but did not cease entirely until under Gallienus (par. 9) . A promi- 
nent confessor from this time is the church father Origen (par. 19) . 
Cyprian (par. 19) is one of the most noted martyrs. 

Protected by the edict of Gallienus (par. 9) the Christians were 
for some 40 years shielded from persecutions. But after this the 
Church had to undergo its greatest sufferings. This happened under 
Diocletian (284—305). For a long time he had permitted the Chris- 
tians to enjoy peace, but finally in 303 he yielded to the presenta- 
tions af his associate Emperor Galerius, and issued an edict which 
forbade the assemblies of the Christians, and ordered their churches 
to be torn down, and their sacred writings to be burned. Even now 
many forsook their faith, and to the former classes of apostates 
was added one more, the traditors, or such as gave up the sacred 
writings in their possessions. Yet as a whole the Church showed 
itself better able to meet this persecution than that under Decius. 
This was greatly needed, for the heathen had set as their aim to 
wipe Christianity from the earth, and they mustered all their 
strength and sagacity to gain their object. They were no longer 
satisfied with putting the Christians to death by beheading, drown- 
ing, burning at the stake, and crucifying, but they tortured them to 
death slowly and by the most horrible methods. Even children were 
put to death. Thus it continued until Galerius by a severe illness had 
his eyes opened and gave command to discontinue all persecutions 
(A. D. 311) . In his misery he even went so far as to call upon the 
Christians to pray both for him and the state. Perfect tranquillity, 
however, was not established immediately, as his associate Emperor 
Maximinus and his successors Maxentius and Licinius were eager 
devotees of the heathen worship, and consequently gladly saw that 
the Christians sighed under oppression and distress. 

In Spain, Gaul, and Britain Constantius Chlorus, the associate 
Emperor of Diocletian, had protected the Christians as far as he 
could. The same policy was followed by his son and successor 
Constantine (from 306) . In the wars which the latter carried on 
against Maxentius, and afterwards against Licinius, he found sup- 
port among the Christians, and his victories led to the political 
predominance of Christianity over heathenism. Already in 312 and 
313 he had accorded religious liberty to the Christians by edicts 
both from Rome and Milan. 



PERSECUTIONS 15 

9. The Effects of the Persecutions ; the Growth of the Church. 

The persecutions brought great distress upon the Chris- 
tian Church, and separated from it many unstable 
minds, but they also contributed to keep the Church free 
from unworthy members, and to force the Christians to unite more 
closely among themselves as well as with their head, Christ. This 
brought about a most desirable development of the 
fruits of faith and charity. The persecutions also served 
as means of spreading Christianity. For when the Christians 
were persecuted at one place, they repaired to other lo- 
calities and became everywhere sparks to light anew the 
gospel fire. The courage of the martyr-confessors did 
not fail to exert its influence, and many a heathen was 
thus won for a religion that bestowed peace and hope in 
the greatest adversities, yea, even in the worst agonies 
of death. Thus it proved "that the blood of the martyrs 
was the seed of the Church." Paganism on the other 
hand developed during the persecutions its baser quali- 
ties and doomed itself to ruin. Consequently the Chris- 
tian Church came out the stronger from every persecu- 
tion, even from the severest ones. Thus the Emperor 
Gallienus was compelled (A. D. 260) to stop the 
persecution commenced under Decius by an edict, in 
which he repealed the stringent laws of his predecessors against the 
Christians, and after the Diocletian persecution it was 
no less political wisdom than conviction that induced 
Constantine to seek support among the Christians 
against his political rivals. When he became sole ruler, 
in 324, the persecutions ceased, and Christianity became 
a favored religion in the Roman Empire. 

c. Constitution and Cultus. 

10. Church Officers. To begin with the Apostles them- 
selves had charge of the churches founded by them. Af- 



16 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

terwards every well regulated church had a government, 
or council of elders, who in the New Testament are 
sometimes called bishops (superintendents), sometimes 
presbyters, i. e. elders, for they should be selected from the 
older and maturer members of the Church. Their official 
duties were, to have supervision over the Church, lead 
its services, and, in general, to manage its affairs. 

Subsequently new offices followed. The care of the 
sick and poor members was assigned to special men, se- 
lected for this purpose, called deacons (servants). Later 
on they assisted in administering the sacraments. The 
care of sick and destitute women was given to deaconesses. 

Shortly after apostolic times it becomes evident that 
in the council of elders in a congregation one member 
obtained authority over the others. This one was called 
bishop ; the others retained the name presbyters. A pres- 
byter's duty was henceforth to administer themeans of grace, 
and to exercise spiritual care of the souls. A bishop could per- 
form a presbyter's office, but had as special duties the 
following: to be the principal leader of the Church; to be its dele- 
gate to the synods; to ordain and exercise supervision over the 
presbyters and deacons; and finally (in the Occident) to confirm 
those who were baptized (par. 11). The territory of a bishop 
comprised generally a city with the surrounding rural district, 
corresponding in general to the Koman community (mmri- 
cipium). 

The division of the Roman Empire into provinces 
gave rise to a new grade of officers. The bishop in the 
capital of a province very soon acquired ascendancy 
over the other bishops of the province and was called 
metropolitan. He had authority to convene the provincial 
synods, to preside at their conventions, and to consecrate the bishops. 
Still higher respect was paid to the bishop of certain 
cities (the so called "sedes apostolic*''), where churches 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 17 

had been founded by the Apostles (e. g. Jerusalem, Cor- 
inth, Ephesus), and such cities as had been centers for 
the dissemination of Christianity over the greater parts 
of the Roman Empire, especially Antioch, Rome, and 
Alexandria. Some of these bishops afterwards acquired 
the title and dignity of patriarchs (par. 23). 

Beside the afore-named offices there were others of a more tem- 
porary character to which the Holy Ghost himself called and equipped 
certain persons. In the New Testament the occupants are named 
prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers. The prophets spoke the 
word according to divine inspiration. The evangelists seem to have 
' been the helpers and followers of the Apostles, as well as traveling 
preachers and missionaries. Those who were named pastors and 
teachers either made only occasional visits to the churches, or, 
when they remained stationary for some time, used their special 
gifts to instruct and lead their fellow-Christians to a better com- 
prehension of the gospel truths. 

During this period, when the direct influence of the Spirit was 
so strong within the Church, there were also other free gifts which 
worked to the edification of the Church. This was especially the 
case, when the miraculous powers of the Spirit manifested them- 
selves in the Church, either as prophecy, healing, or speaking with 
tongues. The Church could make use of these gifts, but it was 
necessary to examine them closely, so that every manifestation of 
the divine Spirit was rightly used and all false spirits were turned 
away (1 Thes. 5: 20-21). 

The development of the episcopal authority was undoubtedly a slow 
one. In the council of elders (college of presbyters) some one must 
act as chairman at their meetings, and afterwards see that the 
decisions were published and carried out. Naturally such a trust 
was left to that member of the council who either because of long 
service or of personal qualities had a higher standing than the rest. 
In this way every one was accustomed to look upon such a person 
as the principal leader of the interests of the Church. From this 
position as first among his equals (primus inter pares) the step to 
real authority was not a long one. 

The difference in rank between the bishop and the presbyter was 
steadily growing. The following conditions were favorable to it. 
To begin with the New Testament gospel ministry was compared 

2 



18 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

to the Old Testament priesthood. This view helped to create a 
strong distinction on the one hand between the ministry and the 
common people, and on the other hand between the different degrees 
within the ministry itself. Just as the tribe of Levi was separated 
from the other Israelites, and should in their behalf have charge of 
the divine ordinances, so the consecrated gospel minister was looked 
on as God's lot (kleros) and strictly separated from the other Chris- 
tian people (laos, laici, lay-men). For the three degrees in the 
ministerial office a ready correspondence was found in the Levitical 
priesthood: the bishop was compared to the high-priest, the pres- 
byters to the other priests, and the deacons to the Levites. Further- 
more after the example of the Church father Cyprian the bishops 
were looked upon as the heirs to the apostolical office, which through 
the act of ordination was communicated from the one to the other 
(apostolical succession) . The bishops thus stood forth as the pillars 
of the Church. Any particular difference among themselves was 
not yet allowed, nevertheless the bishop of Rome had the honorary 
rank as the first among his equals. 

The province of the episcopal power was increased by the en- 
largement of the diocese. To begin with this consisted only of one 
congregation. But when the number of Christians had largely in- 
creased, it was thought expedient to separate this one church into 
several. All these were placed under the care of the bishop in the 
mother church. Here and there even in the rural districts inde- 
pendent churches with their own bishops had arisen. In such con- 
gregations no new bishops were elected after the departure of the 
first, and the church was generally placed under the supervision of 
the bishop in the nearest city. In this way his authority increased 
more and more. 

The minor offices in the church were taken charge of by the 
sabdeacons, who were the assistants of the deacons, lecturers, who 
at public worship read the scripture selections and had charge of 
the sacred writings, cantors, who led the devotional singing, door- 
keepers (sextons), etc. 

The early Christians were keenly sensible of the unity in 
Christ of all the believers, and of the destiny of the Church to 
gather unto itself the whole of redeemed mankind. From these facts 
were derived the strong efforts to keep the scattered parts of the 
Church together as one whole, not only in faith and doctrine, but also 
in government and general organization. Yet the era of the martyrs did 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 19 

not find time to create a central legislative or executive authority 
for the whole Church, although several bishops in the city of Rome 
had already set forth their claims to ecclesiastical supremacy. Im- 
portant preliminary work had, however, been carried on. To this 
belong the following: in the hands of the bishop was laid amonarchial 
power over his congregation (or diocese) ; all the churches in the same 
province were held tog ether by the metropolitan bishop and the principal 
synod which had charge of all the interests common to the churches of 
the province; certain constitutional principles prevailed throughout the 
entire Church. These were either based upon apostolical authority, or 
upon the reputation of certain distinguished church fathers andimpor- 
tant synods. The bishops conferred diligently with each other about 
the interests of the Church both by ivritten communications and by 
interchange of personal visits. To this may be added the lively in- 
tercommunication between the different Christian congregations 
which was carried on both by itinerant preachers and others who 
traveled in their own interests. In this way the different churches 
had opportunity to exert the one upon the other an enlivening and 
hallowing influence, and so the confession of every Christian : I be- 
lieve in a Holy Catholic (i. e. universal) Church, grew to become a 
living conviction. 

11. Admission into the Church was by baptism. Infant 
baptism with sponsors occurs early, but naturally at this 
time baptism of adults (proselyte-baptism) was more in 
vogue. With adults a long time of preparation under the 
direction of a Christian teacher called catechist preceded 
baptism. During this instruction the candidates were 
called catechumens (i. e. those who are instructed). The 
preparation was designed both to impart Christian knowl- 
edge and to make the catechumens accustomed to a Christian 
life. Before baptism the candidate renounced the devil and 
all his works (i. e. idolatry), and the baptizer conjured the 
evil spirit (exorcism). The candidates also confessed their faith 
according to a certain formula previously imparted. 
The formulas used were somewhat different in the vari- 
ous churches and at different periods. From these 
formulas the Apostles' Creed was gradually developed. 



20 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

The baptismal rite consisted of a threefold immer- 
sion in water into the name of the Father, the Son, 
and the Holy Ghost. Upon the sick affusion of water 
was used. After baptism followed anointing with 
oil (probably a symbol of the spiritual priesthood of the 
baptized), and laying on of hands (as a means for the 
outpouring of the Spirit). In the Occident these two 
acts were looked upon as confirming the baptism (con- 
firmation), and was always perfdrmed by the bishop. 
The candidate for baptism was clothed in a white bap- 
tismal robe, the emblem of purity. The time for baptism 
was generally set for Saturday before Easter, Pentecost, or 
(in the Orient) Epiphany (par. 25). 

A controversy arose about the middle of the third 
century, whether or not a person who had been bap- 
tized by a heterodox church should be baptized again, 
in case he asked to be received into the orthodox Church. 
To settle this question it was decided by the Council of 
Nicsea, in 325, that such a baptism should be valid, 
provided it had been performed according to the institution of Christ, 
and the candidate was received into the Church by the 
laying on of hands. 

12. Divine Worship. To begin with the Christians at- 
tended the assemblies of the Jews both in the syna- 
gogues and the temple, but they had also their own 
worship, when they edified themselves by the doctrine 
of the Apostles, prayer, and breaking of bread (i. e. the 
Lord's Supper). Out of this twofold mode of divine 
worship grew afterwards the complete Christian service 
in two parts, that of the catechumens (missa catechu- 
menorum), and that of the faithful (missa fidelium). 

The service of the catechumens was accessible also to those 
not baptized; it partook of the nature of the service in 
the synagogue, and like it comprised scripture reading, 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 21 

singing, and preaching. During the early times the scrip- 
ture lessons were taken from the Old Testament, but af- 
terwards as soon as the New Testament writings became 
accessible, they either took the place of or were used by 
the side of the former. The Psalms of David were sung at 
worship, also Christian hymns as soon as such were 
composed. 

The service of the faithful was accessible only to the 
baptized members of the Church, and was celebrated 
with prayers, doxologies, and the Lord's Supper as its climax. 
After communion the deacons carried the consecrated 
bread and wine to the sick and to prisoners. 

At first there was held in connection with the Lord's 
Supper a love-feast at which the poor members of the 
Church were fed at the expense of the wealthier class. 
Both on account of abuses that arose and edicts of the 
state against secret gatherings these love-feasts were 
separated from the communion service, and were soon 
entirely abandoned. At the celebration of the Lord's 
Supper, however, free contributions continued both of 
the bread and wine necessary, and of means for the sup- 
port of the poor. These contributions were called of- 
ferings. This very name was afterwards used for the 
communion itself, and helped to associate with it the 
conception of a sacrificial act. 

As soon as the state of things had become somewhat fixed, the 
preaching was done by the bishop, a presbyter, or a deacon, but 
very seldom ' by persons having no ecclesiastical consecration. To 
begin with the discourses were very simple, rather expositions of 
scripture passages or exhortations than addresses, and were called 
homilies (conversations). In the Orient oratory very soon found 
its way into the sermons. In the wake of this art which was in- 
troduced from the forum and the popular assemblies followed 
quickly the objectionable custom of applauding the preacher. 

For communion leavened bread was used, Judaizing sects alone 



22 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

used unleavened. The wine was according to ancient custom mixed 
with water. 

13. Church Festivals. During the first enthusiasm, and 
during times of persecution and distress the Christians 
assembled daily for mutual edification around the Word 
of God and the Lord's Supper. Later on certain days 
were set apart for meditating upon the great gospel 
truths, the suffering, death, and resurrection of Christ. The 
festive days of the Church were of two kinds, weekly and 
annual. 

Already in the time of the Apostles Sunday was ob- 
served as the day of the resurrection of our Lord. It was 
afterwards designated as a day of joy by praying in a 
standing position and omitting fasting. Wednesday com- 
memorating the beginning of Christ's passion, and Friday 
the day of his death were days of sorrow, when the 
Christians fasted and prayed in a kneeling posture. 

Of the annual Church festivals Easter and Pentecost are 
the oldest, both because they were an inheritance from 
the Old Testament and because of the great memories 
connected with them. Easter was celebrated as a 
solemn reminder of the death of Christ on the cross 
and of his resurrection. Before Easter a season was set 
aside for a quiet contemplation of the passion of Christ. 
During this time the Christian fasted every day, except 
Sunday. Originally this period was brief, but was af- 
terwards fixed at forty days in accordance with Christ's 
fasting in the wilderness. The interval between Easter 
and Pentecost was one of continual joy, when com- 
munion was celebrated every day. The fortieth day 
after Easter was observed as the Ascension day of the 
Lord. Pentecost commemorated the outpouring of the 
Spirit and the birth of the Christian Church. 

As to the time for celebrating Easter different opin- 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 23 

ions existed. The custom of the Roman bishop, how- 
ever, prevailed, that is to celebrate Easter on the first 
Sunday following the full moon after the vernal equi- 
nox. This custom was ratified by the Council of 
Nicaea, 325. 

Sunday came to be the real sabbath of the week. It is self-evi- 
dent that among the Christian Jews Saturday would also be ob- 
served. Within"; the Church of the Orient Saturday was held as a 
day of joy, when no fast would be held even during the forty days 
before Easter (Lent). Wednesday and Friday were "watch-days", 
when the warriors of Christ should especially be on their guard 
against their spiritual enemies and battle against them by fasting 
and prayer. The fast was either a total abstinence from all food 
(Wednesday and Friday till 3 or 6 o'clock P. M.), or an abstinence 
from more nourishing food as meat, eggs, etc. (during Lent) . 

The same day on which the Jews ate the Passover, or the 14 of 
Nisan, the churches of Asia Minor were accustomed to celebrate 
as the festival of the crucifixion, no matter what day of the week it 
came. The Western churches wished on the other hand to cele- 
brate the memory of the death of Christ on Friday and that of his 
resurrection on the following Sunday. At the same time it was 
desirable to place this Christian festival as near the time of the 
Jewish Passover as possible. A Jewish month begins with the new 
moon. About the 14 of Nisan occurs the full moon, and this is al- 
ways the first one after the vernal equinox. When thus the fol- 
lowing Sunday was chosen as the day for the observance of Easter 
both objects were gained. 

14. Places of Worship. At first the Christians held their 
services in private houses or rented halls. At the graves of 
the martyrs and other Christians they were also wont to 
assemble. This was particularly the case in those cities, 
where the Church had for its burials subterranean 
chambers, so called crypts or catacombs. Here they could 
quite safely come together during times of persecution. 
From the beginning of the third century we find also 
separate church edifices. 



24 



THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 



The custom of assembling at the graves of the dead arose from 
a desire to observe the days of the departure of the saints as their 
birthdays to a higher life and thus to establish a consciousness of 
the unity between the Church militant and the Church triumphant. 
Narratives from the lives of the martyrs were often read on occa- 
sions sacred to their memory, and thus the foundation was laid for 
the Christian legend. 




A VIEW OF THE CATACOMBS 



Crypts are subterranean places for sepulture of smaller area; 
catacombs comprise several connected vaults or halls. They consist 
of many winding passages or labyrinths, oftentimes several stories 
above each other; in the perpendicular walls recesses were cut the 
one above the other, and, after the corpse had been placed therein, 
they were closed up by masonry or hermetically sealed by stone 
slabs which generally bore inscriptions. How early the construction 
of these catacombs began is not known, but they were used as 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 



25 



burial places as late as the fourth century. About the middle of 
the eighth century they fell into decay and were forgotten. During 
the counter-reformation of the sixteenth century a new interest was 
awakened for the sacred relics from early times, and a new search 
was instituted in the subterranean burial-chambers. Now they 
have become a valuable 
source of information con- 
cerning the customs and 
manners of the early 
Church. 

In the interior of the 
churches was found a table 
for the bread and wine 
and a desk from which 
the scripture lessons were 
read. Pictures in the 
churches were not tolera- 
ted, as they were forbid- 
den in the decalogue. No 
scruples, however, were 
entertained against orna- 
menting separate rooms 
and the walls of the cata- 
combs with symbols: e. g. 
a shepherd with a lamb on 
his shoulders, a dove, an 
anchor (hope) , a lyre (dox- 
ology), a ship sailing to- 
wards heaven, and a fish. 

The latter was intended as a reminder both of the fishing for souls 
and of the communion in which the risen Saviour 
gives his flesh to eat, and lastly of Christ him- 
self. The Greek name for fish (l^Ov^) contains 
the initials of the words Irjarovs XP 10 " 1 "^ & €0 v 
vtos Somjp, i. e. Jesus Christ, Son of God, 
Saviour. Often a monogram was used which 
Christ's monogram was f ormed from the two initials of Christ. 




4 ^ ^ 



SHEPHERD WITH THE LAMB. 




26 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

d. Life and Discipline in the Church* 

15. Life within the Church. Christianity made its entry 
into the world among nations already weak and effemi- 
nate. Nevertheless by its inherent spiritual power it 
called forth a religious enthusiasm during the persecu- 
tions and a moral strength which make this heroic age 
of the Church a model for all coming ages. The ready 
willingness of the Christians to suffer for their faith, and 
their eagerness for devotion in public worship have al- 
ready been told. Their individual life was sanctified 
through prayer. They exercised themselves in self-denial 
and renunciation of the world. Not only from the 
heathen vices, but also from public amusements, danc- 
ing, and theatrical performances they stood aloof. 
Heathen science and art were dubious accomplishments 
in the eyes of many. By fasting and mortification of 
the body (asceticism) they sought to bring their carnal 
nature under the sway of the Spirit. 

In strong contrast to heathen selfishness stands 
Christian charity. This manifested itself not only in 
the mutual aid and succor of the Christians which 
caused even the heathen to exclaim: "See, how the 
Christians loveeach other", but also in their willingness 
to aid the heathen, even their tormentors, when they 
were in any distress. Hospitality was counted as a 
sacred obligation. Many rich subjected themselves to 
voluntary poverty by giving away all their possessions 
to the poor and needy. 

Under the protection of Christian love there arose a 
true family life in which woman rose to equality with 
man, the children received a Christian education, the 
slaves were often liberated or at least treated with 
kindness, and all felt that they were one in Christ. 



LIFE AND DISCIPLINE IN THE CHURCH 27 

The distress of the Church forced it to look forward 
with longing for the second coming of Christ, and this 
hope was cherished in the hearts of many, and en- 
couraged them to perseverance and new exertions. 

Yet the Church was not perfect. Already at this time 
false members were found as well as such as were luke- 
warm in their faith. Furthermore there arose quite 
early a false tendency, contrary to the gospel of Christ, 
to lay too great a stress on certain outward works, 
making them even meritorious before God. Martyrdom 
and asceticism were especially so considered (par. 29). 

Prayer may be called the breath of the Christian life, and as 
this- life was vigorous during the early days of the Church so prayer 
was the more diligent. The Christians were not bound to any cer- 
tain hours for prayer, but it became a custom to pray at certain 
times of the day as morning and evening, also at meals. Many ob- 
served the Jewish hours of prayer at 9, 12 and 3 o'clock. Prayer 
was offered either in a standing or a kneeling position with hands 
lifted towards heaven, or stretched out so as to form a cross. The 
custom of folding the hands arose during the middle ages. To make 
the sign of a cross is a very old custom. Yet all these customs were 
only indicative of that which ought to take place in the soul. "Be- 
fore one stretches his hands towards heaven, he must raise his soul 
thither, and before the eyes are directed heavenward, one must lift 
up his spirit to God." (Origen.) 

Christian matrimony was subject to the Roman law. Yet quite 
early endeavors were made to give religious sanctity to it by the 
blessings of a bishop or presbyter. To strengthen themselves for 
their high calling the newly married partook of the holy com- 
munion. The engagement-ring, an inheritance from heathenism, 
was used as a symbol of matrimonial faithfulness. 

Cremation was too suggestive of the fire that shall torment the 
unfaithful, therefore, it was soon exchanged for the Jewish custom 
of burying the dead. The body of the Christian should like a seed 
of grain be buried in the earth in due season to come fort as a new 
glorified body. 

To prevent the abuse which impostors often made of the hospi- 
tality of the Christians, letters of recommendation were used. 



28 THE PEROID OF THE MARTYRS 

These were issued by the elders and contained a certain mark of 
genuineness known only by the initiated. 

16. Church Discipline. The Church exercised a very 
strict vet loving supervision over its members. If any 
evidences of unchristian life became manifest within it, a 
wholesome discipline was administered. By so doing 
the Church sought both to take away from those with- 
out all reasonable cause to blaspheme the Christian 
name, and as far as possible to preserve that purity and 
sanctity which should adorn it as the bride of Christ. 
There were various degrees of Church discipline (Matt. 
18: 15-17; Tit. 3: 10) of which the severest was excom- 
munication from the Church. Such punishment fell 
upon those who had caused public offence either by false 
doctrine or immoral life, also upon all apostates from 
Christianity. 

When one who had been excommunicated asked to 
be received into the Church again and gave evidence 
that he was sorry for his sin, he was received back. But 
he had to prove the sincerity of his repentance by public 
penance. This took considerable time and consisted of 
several degrees (afterwards fixed at four) with which 
the penitent step by step was received back into com- 
munion with the Church. 

At the time of Cyprian, about 250, church penance had become 
established. Each of the four degrees took sometimes a year. In 
the first degree the penitents (then called flentes) clothed in mourn- 
ing had to stand in the church door and with tears ask both the 
elders and the congregation for forgiveness and reinstatement. In 
the second degree (audientes) they were allowed, at a certain place 
in the church, to listen to the scripture reading and the sermon. In 
the third they had permission to remain though in a kneeling posture 
(substrati) during the prayer which was offered for them. In the 
forth degree they took part in the entire worship, except com- 
munion which they, standing (consistentes) , were only allowed to 
behold. To partake of the Lord's Supper they were allowed only 



LIFE AND DISCIPLINE IN THE CHURCH 29 

after the solemn reinstatement into the peace of the Church (resti- 
tutio in pacem) by absolution, laying on of hands, and the kiss of 
peace. 

17. Schismatic Tendencies. Some were, indeed, found 
who would make the return to the Church easier for 
those under its ban, but many on the other hand urged 
still greater severity and demanded that the doors of 
the Church should for ever be shut to those who had 
once been cast out. Such a person should for the rest of 
his natural life remain a penitent and so be left to the 
mercy of God. Only in this way could the Church re- 
main a communion of saints. When the Church had to re- 
ject such rigorism, all those who fought for the same 
would naturally place themselves in strong opposi- 
tion to the Church, and in this way there arose 
schismatic tendencies within the Church as well as 
schismatic churches. Of these the best known are 
Montanism and Donatism. 

a) Montanism is derived from Mont anus of Phrygia, 
who had once been a heathen priest, and had been con- 
verted to Christianity and become a Christian teacher, 
in the middle of the second century. He gained many 
adherents, who in their leader saw the promised comforter 
(John 14: 16). Even the church father Tertullian (par. 
19) among others embraced a modified view of this 
schismatic. 

The leading thoughts in the doctrine of Mont anus 
were : 1 ) The kingdom of God develops gradually. The Old 
Testament was its child-hood, with Christ and his Apostles 
it entered into its period of youth, through Montanus it 
was to be brought to its full man-hood, when the outpour- 
ing of the Spirit should be more abundant than ever 
before. 2) The direct activity of the Spirit through supernatural 
gifts especially prophecy was necessary for the Church. 



30 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

3) The perfecting of the kingdom of God, which Montanus 
thought he should bring about, had no reference to doc- 
trine, for this was perfect and given once for all, but to 
the Christian life. This he sought to raise to a higher 
state of purity by a severer church discipline and by cer- 
tain ascetic regulations. He laid special stress upon 
fasts, celibacy, and martyrdom as leading to a higher 
degree of eternal bliss. 4) Shortly after the death of 
Montanus the Lord should return and establish the 
millennium, when Christ should visibly rule with his 
saints on earth (Chiliasm). 

b ) Donatism originated at Carthage, where many fanat- 
ic zealots led by a certain Donatus arose towards the 
close of the persecution under Diocletian. He urged that 
the Church should deal more rigorously with apostates, 
and first of all depose their newly elected bishop, who 
was accused of having delivered sacred writings to be 
burned. When their demands were set aside, they sepa- 
rated from the Church and formed distinct organiza- 
tions. In vain did the leading men of the Church en- 
deavor by persuasion to led them back again. After- 
wards the government tried to suppress them by force, 
a very unwise measure, which was only partially justi- 
fied by certain lawless acts on the part of theDonatists. 
Now they were seized by a fanatic hatred of both 
Church and state, and many of them united with roving 
bands of marauders (circumcelliones), who caused dev- 
astation by murder, fire, and pillage. Under the sway 
of the Vandals they were greatly diminished. The last 
remnant of them succumbed to the Arabs. 

Besides demanding the purity of the Church the 
Donatists claimed that the means of grace lose their effective- 
ness when they are administered by an apostate, and that the 
Church and state should be separated. 



DOCTRINE 31 

e. Doctrine. 

18. The New Testament Canon. The starting-point and 
fountain of Christian doctrine are the sacred writings of 
the Old Testament and the apostolic communication, oral and 
written. The latter is found in the collection of books 
which we call the New Testament. These books were all 
written before the year 100. Most of them widely known 
already in the middle of the second century and used at 
the Christian worship by the side of the Old Testament 
Canon. Those less known and, therefore, contested were 
few in number. Finally in the fourth century the Church 
gave its unanimous verdict regarding the authenticity 
of these writings, and thus towards the close of that 
century the New Testament Canon was fixed as we now 
have it. 

The oral communication of the Apostles gave rise to tradition. 
This was to begin with the source of all Christian knowledge, but 
it soon became adulterated with many spurious additions. The more 
this was done, the more invaluable became the writings of the 
Apostles. By the side of these there appeared in the course of time 
a number of clandestine (apocryphal) writings which pretended to 
have their origin from the Apostles or other divinely inspired men. 
It now became necessary to separate the genuine from the spurious. 
Both the church fathers and the synodical conventions devoted 
themselves to this work, and separated from the Canon everything 
whose genuineness could not be established both upon internal and 
external evidences. With the Old Testament they were less criti- 
cal and accepted generally the whole septuagint (i. e. the oldest 
Greek translation of the Old Testament) , both its canonical and 
apocryphal books. The synods which have the greatest importance 
in establishing the Biblical Canon were held at Laodicea 360, Hippo 
Regius 393, and Carthage 397. 

19. Teachers of the Church. The word which the Church 
had recieved must become deeper rooted and be made 
fruitful both in life and doctrine. The men who labored 
for the doctrinal development of the Church have es- 



32 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

pecially been called teachers of the Church and are generally 
classed in three groups: apostolic fathers, apologists, and 
church fathers. 

a) The apostolic fathers were thought to have been the 
assistants of the Apostles or their disciples. One of them 
is named in the New Testament, namely Barnabas. Two 
others, Ignatius and Polycarp (par. 8) were distinguished 
bishops and martyrs of the second century. The writ- 
ings that bear the names of the apostolic fathers bear 
testimony of Christian earnestness, although they are 
far inferior to the apostolic writings. 

b) Apologists (defenders) were the Christian teachers 
who undertook to defend Christianity both against 
Jews and heathen by showing the injustice of the perse- 
cutions, the unequaled power of the Christian religion 
to regenerate and ennoble mankind, and by replying to 
charges of a philosophical nature. Foremost among 
these stands Justin Martyr. Many of the church fathers 
also wrote in defence of Christianity. 

Justin Martyr was born at Neapolis (Sychem), Samaria, in the 
beginning of the second century. His parents were heathen, most 
likely of Greek birth. As they were wealthy, their gifted son could 
without restraint follow his desire to study philosophy under the most 
renowned teachers. He was, however, disappointed in many ways. 
A stoic boasted that he could show him the right way to wisdom 
arid virtue, but he could not furnish him with any information about 
the existence of a God, and "without faith in God there is no virtue 
or truth." A Peripatetic (follower of Aristotle) asked too high a 
price for his instruction, but "he who agrees to sell truth for 
money proves thereby that to him money is worth more than truth. " 
A Neo-Pythagorean required as necessary fundamental knowledge 
music, astronomy, and geometry, but "intellectual acquirements 
alone can not satisfy the heart." At last he came to a follower of 
Plato and here he at last thought that he would find the knowledge 
he thirsted for. Now he hoped to be able to penetrate into the 
secrets of the world of ideas and be enabled (in an ecstatic condition) 



DOCTRINE 33 

to behold God. His confidence was, however, soon shaken by an 
old Christian who persuaded him that human knowledge alone could 
never reveal the living God, and directed him at the same time to 
the divine revelation in the prophetic writings. 

Now Justin had found the way to true knowledge. He searched 
the Scriptures, he received instruction from Christian teachers, he 
beheld the fortitude of the martyrs, and the pious life of the Chris- 
tians, and came at last to the conclusion that the only ' 'reliable and 
available philosophy" was found in the doctrine which the prophets 
and the Saviour announced by them had proclaimed. This doctrine 
alone revealed the ''origin and design of everything" (i. e. God and 
eternal life) , prevailed upon the sinner to repent, filled the soul 
of the believer with sweet consolation, and made it possible for 
every one to become perfect and happy, in as much as it imparted 
knowledge of God and his son Jesus Christ. His conviction was af- 
terwards confirmed during his subsequent life in the Christian Church 
with which in his mature manhood he became united through 
baptism. 

The philosopher's mantle Justin retained even as a Christian and 
went about in the world to proclaim Christianity as the only true 
philosophy. With undaunted courage he gave testimony of his faith 
in Palestine, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy. In two apologies he 
sought to convince the Emperors how unjust and unreasonable were 
the persecutions against the Christians. In open debates he proved 
the truths of Christianity against the Cynic philosopher Crescens. 
The objections of the Jews he refuted in his dialogue with Try- 
phon, the Jew. 

Notwithstanding the enthusiasm with which Justin embraced 
Christianity, he shows a certain weakness in his conception of 
Christian truth. Neither the depth of human depravity, nor the 
mysteries of redemption did he fathom sufficiently, but attributed 
rather to the human will very nearly an unimpaired strength to 
choose between good and evil, and he sees in Christ not so much 
the redeemer of the world as a new lawgiver who showed mankind 
the right way through its own earnest endeavors to gain righteous- 
ness. Yet he held steadfastly to the faith in God as the Father of 
the world, and in Christ as the Son of God, and it was his firm pur- 
pose to abide by the teachings of the Church in general. He 
has always been reckoned among the orthodox teachers of the 
Church. 



34 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

It is quite natural that Justin through his dauntless confession 
should encounter the enmity of the heathen. During a visit to 
Rome he was accused by his enemies. Before the judge he con- 
fessed his faith with the same calm steadfastness as before and 
was as a matter of course sentenced to death. He became a martyr 
of the Lord about the year 166, and this name of honor has after- 
wards, in the history of the Church, been bestowed upon him. 

c) The church fathers fought against heresies in the Church 
and have contributed to the development of the doc- 
trinal tenets of the Church. They have been grouped in 
three schools or doctrinal tendencies: the School of Asia 
Minor, the School of Alexandria, and the School of North Africa 
(called also the Western School). 

The School of Asia Minor laid equal stress upon a sound 
doctrine and Christian life. Its best known exponent is 
Irenxus, a disciple of Polycarp. He suffered martyrdom 
as bishop of Lyons, 202. The School of Alexandria laid 
particular stress upon Christianity as the true wisdom 
(yvwo-is). Its principal representatives were the two 
teachers at the catechetical School of Alexandria, Clement 
(t about 220) and Origen (f 254) . Christian faith and its 
manifestation in daily life were the leading principles of the 
School of North Africa (the Western School). Among 
its leading men we find the presbyter Tertullian (f about 
220) and the bishop Cyprian (t 258), both from Car- 
thage. 

Origen was born about the year 185 in Alexandria of Christian 
parents and received baptism while yet a child. He early developed 
a great love for learning. 

In Alexandria, one of the centers of culture in that day, learned 
men were imparting instruction in Christianity in a more scientific 
form to catechumens and others who sought a thorough knowledge 
of the Christian faith. In this way arose the renowned catechetical 
school, so called because its teachers were catechists. At this school 
Origen received instruction from distinguished teachers, especially 
from the above named Clement. 



DOCTRINE 35 

When in 202 a persecution broke out in Alexandria, his father, 
Leonidas, was seized and cast into prison. In his eagerness to con- 
fess Christ, the young Origen would have shared his father's fate, 
had not his mother hidden his clothes to prevent his leaving home. 
He had to content himself with writing an encouraging letter to his 
father in which he exhorted him to remain steadfast. " Beware," 
he wrote among other things, ' 'that you do not for our sake yield 
your convictions. ' ' Leonidas sealed his faith with his blood. 

After the father's death the family possessions were confis- 
cated, but Origen soon reached the age when with teaching and 
book-copying he could earn a livelihood for himself and give aid to 
the family. At eighteen years of age he became a teacher at the 
catechetical school of Alexandria, but feeling the need of a more 
thorough philosophical training, he sought the instruction of a re- 
nowned philosopher and gave a thorough study to the systems of 
Plato and other Greek philosophers. 

Many distinguished persons, both Christians and heathen, 
became his disciples, and for some time he labored with unusual 
success not only as a teacher but also as a writer. During all this 
time he practiced the severest asceticism which sometimes assumed 
fantastic and unnatural forms. 

At short intervals he visited various points of the Christian 
world. During such a visit in Palestine he was ordained as pres- 
byter by two bishops residing there. This displeased the bishop of 
Alexandria to whose jurisdiction he belonged, and this circumstance 
together with other matters led to dissension between the two men. 
On this account Origen left Alexandria (about 230 ) and came to 
Caesarea, then the capital of Palestine. A brilliant circle of young 
men here gathered about him, and for many years he was busily 
engaged as teacher and writer. 

Having spent some time in Cappadocia, and in his latter years 
made several journeys to various synods to settle different theo- 
logical questions, he was subjected to great indignities at the 
opening of the Decian persecution and was even put to torture. He 
died at Tyre shortly afterwards (about 254). 

Origen had exerted a powerful influence during his life-time, 
and had twice communicated with members of the imperial family; 
but through his many writings he exerted a still greater influence 
after his death. 

The works of Origen are so numerous that ojily a few are able 
to read all he has written, and this notwithstanding the fact that 



36 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

at first he was very loth to become a writer. He had, however, a 
rich friend of high rank, Ambrosius by name, who was continually 
urging him to the work, and gave him liberal support. His friend 
placed at his disposal seven stenographers who relieved each other 
at fixed periods, and other persons who copied what the stenogra- 
phers had taken down. 

The greatest work of Origen upon which he labored with un- 
tiring zeal for many years is his Hexapla. In six columns he had 
arranged the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, the translation of 
the septuagint together with several other Greek translations of the 
Old Testament. Of this great work there are at this time only 
fragments left. 

He furthermore wrote commentaries to the greater part of 
the Old Testament and to most of the New Testament. Besides 
this he has given a scientific exposition of the fundamental points 
of the Christian faith. He is especially to be remembered as 
the one who wrote the most important apology of the Christian 
faith during this period. This work bears the title Eight Books 
against Celsus, a heathen writer of the second century who had 
attacked the Christian religion. 

In his theological system Origen sought in a clever manner to 
unite the teachings of the Bible with Greek philosophy, especially 
the Platonic. In order to do this he interpreted the Bible in an 
allegorical (figurative) way. In contrast to the false gnosis (i. e. 
deeper knowledge) he placed the true knowledge in order to win 
over to Christianity the heathen of a philosophical turn of mind. 
He considered it as the highest accomplishment for a theologian to 
be able with his reason to grasp the Christian faith, and he en- 
deavored himself to present Christianity as the highest form of 
philosophy. 

Of the particular points in his magnificent system we will quote 
only a few. The creation of the world had taken place from 
eternity. The human souls were also in existence from eternity, 
but because of a fall into sin in the spirit world they are united at 
birth with a material body to be purged and purified. This purifica- 
tion and chastisement will continue after death, especially with the 
impenitent. All the fallen spirits will sooner or later be purged 
from sin and return to God (1 Cor. 15: 28). Origen thus taught a 
restitution of all things (d-H-oKa-rao-rao-is rdv 7rdvTwv), but he inti- 
mates that on account of the freedom of the will the blessed spirits 



DOCTRINE 37 

might again fall and thus a new purification begin, and so on in- 
definitely. 

Origen was deeply conscious of the ethical value of Christianity, 
and the loftiness of the Christian doctrine, yet, as is indicated above, 
in elaborating his system he made use of Platonic expressions, 
and in his Bible exposition he was too free. During his life as well 
as after his death he was strongly decried as a heretic. Notwith- 
standing this, he will always be commended as one of the most 
accomplished and large-hearted of our Church fathers. 

Tertullian was one of the most remarkable men of the early 
Church, and he may with propriety be called the Father of Latin 
Theology and of the Latin Church Language. Of the circumstances of 
his life we know very little, but his character is minutely portrayed 
in his writings. 

He was born about the middle of the second century, in Car- 
thage, where his father was a Roman centurion. He received a 
good education, and devoted himself at first to the study of oratory 
and Roman jurisprudence. His writings give everywhere evidence 
that he practiced law in his younger days. 

It was at a mature age that Tertullian became a Christian. Most 
likely it was the steadfastness of the martyrs and the spiritual 
superiority of the Christians that induced him to abandon paganism. 
His temperament was fiery and full of force, and, therefore, un- 
doubtedly his conversion was like that of the Apostle Paul sudden 
and decisive. With glowing zeal he embraced the new faith. We 
soon find him as a presbyter at Carthage. 

Shortly after his conversion he embraced Montanism (par. 17) 
which at this time gained many adherents also in the West. Proba- 
bly he was touched by the moral strictness of the Montanists. The 
fact that Tertullian embraced Montanism was of the greatest impor- 
tance for the further spread and influence of this doctrine. For he 
both brought clearness into their confused ideas and removed their 
wildest extravagancies. Yet we find even in him a certain one- 
sidedness. He died at an advanced age between the years 220 and 240. 

The writings of Tertullian are many, but not very voluminous. 
In the first place he wrote several apologetical works, com- 
prising a bold and powerful defence of Christianity against both 
Jews and pagans. In these works he emphasizes the fact that 
Christianity is founded in the very nature of man and thus satisfies 
the deepest cravings of the human soul. 



38 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

Furthermore he wrote several works which treat of the 
Christian faith, but are at the same tims polemical essays against 
heretics, especially the gnostics. Tertullian is the first one that 
plainly teaches the doctrine of original sin and in this connection 
also the view of the origin of the human soul which has been called 
Traducianism. He taught that the soul like the body is by trans- 
mission inherited by the children from their parents. 

He also wrote a number of treatises about Christian life. In all 
of these he insists upon the strictest asceticism. 

Against his opponents he was merciless in his writings and of- 
ten resorted to ridicule and satire. His language is quick, concise, 
and strong, sometimes hard and obscure. All his writings bear 
evidence of his true and masterly way of presenting facts, and bear 
the stamp of deep moral earnestness, a contempt — based upon the 
social conditions of the times — for everything earthly, and an 
enthusiastic eagerness to suffer everything for Christ. 

Toward the bishop of Rome, Tertullian assumed a very inde- 
pendent attitude, and from his Montanistic points of view he dis- 
approved of the customs of the Church, while at the same time he 
defended its doctrine against the heretics. 

Cyprian was born in North Africa about the year 200. In the 
schools of Carthage he received a most careful education. Having 
finished his studies he became a teacher of rhetoric. Practical 
adaptation and a considerable fortune soon procured for him a re- 
spectable position, and his life was according to heathen standards 
above reproach. 

But peace of soul he did not know, until at the age of 45 he be- 
came a Christian. His baptism made a lasting impression on him, 
and soon after he distributed the greater part of his possessions 
among the poor. Furthermore he inflicted upon himself severe pen- 
ance and devoted himself zealously to the study of the Bible and 
the writings of several of the church fathers, especially Tertullian. 

He was soon made deacon, and afterwards presbyter. In the 
year 248 he was chosen bishop at Carthage, of which responsibility 
he modestly sought to be relieved. 

With special ardor he undertook to reform the much neglected 
church discipline. By so doing he incurred the bitter enmity of 
such church members as during the outward peace had become luke- 
warm in their faith and had lapsed into a worldly life. Then very 
unexpectedly the terrible persecution under Decius broke out. From 



DOCTRINE 39 

its very beginning the life of Cyprian was in danger. The heathen 
populace demanded his blood (Cyprianum ad leonem!). But he 
thought it his duty to flee, which was sharply criticised by his fierce 
adversaries. 

From his hiding-place he was in the mean time untiring in his 
efforts to serve his congregation. He wrote letter upon letter full 
of advice, admonition, and exhortation. He sent money to the poor 
and dispatched several persons who in his absence should direct the 
affairs of his charge. 

After an absence of more than a year he returned to Carthage. 
He found his fold in the greatest confusion. According to an old 
custom such church members as had steadfastly confessed Christ 
during the persecution (Confessors) had the right to recommend 
for readmission such apostates as desired to be again received into 
the Church. By aid of such a letter of recommendation from a 
confessor many an apostate forced himself into the Church without 
having given evidence of any sincere repentance. This abuse was 
of course highly detrimental to a strict church discipline. 

At a synod in Carthage Cyprian carried the decision through 
that no apostate should be at once received again into the fellow- 
ship of the Church. Only in the face of immediate death should 
such a backslider be reinstalled without previous penance. On the 
other hand it was decided to show leniency to the so-called Libel- 
latici, i. e. those who had not sacrificed to the idols but had procured 
(false) vouchers from the heathen authorities that they had done 
so. Fallen church officers could be received again into the Church, 
but they could never regain their office. 

Thus Cyprian showed himself zealous for a strict church dis- 
cipline. But he opposed most firmly that undue rigorism which at 
this time was advocated by various church teachers, namely, that 
on no condition should a fallen member be again taken back into 
the Church. 

Cyprian became involved in the controversy about baptism. He 
acknowledged only one Church, the Catholic (i. e. universal), one 
baptism, that which had been performed by the Church. Bishop 
Stephen of Rome, however, acknowledged every baptism as genuine, 
when it had been administered according to the command of Christ, 
even if a heretic had administered the same. Accordingly when a 
person that had been baptized by a heterodox party was to be re- 
ceived into the Church, it was customary at Rome to confirm his 



40 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

baptism by the laying on of hands, while at Carthage such a person 
was baptized anew, or rather according to Cyprian's view baptized 
for the first time, as the first baptism was null and void. The 
opinion which Stephen held finally prevailed throughout the Church. 

In the year 257 another persecution was inaugurated, and Cyp- 
rian was exiled to a desert place about a day's journey from Car- 
thage. From this place he led, as far as circumstances allowed, 
during a whole year, the affairs of his church. Then by an imperial 
edict ordering all elders to be put to death, Cyprian was arrested. 
He spurned all who advised him to flee and manifested great bold- 
ness before the judge. When the verdict was rendered that he 
should be beheaded with the sword, he only said, "God be praised." 
In company with many faithful friends and a great concourse of 
people he was conducted to an open place planted with trees outside 
the city. Here he knelt and prayed, whereupon the executioner 
with a trembling hand gave him the fatal blow. This happened in 
September, 258. 

The writings of Cyprian consist chiefly of letters to churches 
and individuals. In these letters as well as in his whole official 
capacity, he stands forth as a zealous, earnest, self-denying, and 
faithful bishop. For his office he demanded respect and veneration 
and was in every respect a church-prince in its noblest sense. Like 
Tertullian he showed considerable independence in his relation to 
the bishop of Rome and did not acknowledge the growing demands 
of superiority of the latter over the other bishops. 

20. Heretical Doctrines. These were of two kinds: those 
who, while they retained Jewish or heathen fundamental prin- 
ciples, sought to acquire certain Christian ideas; and 
those who, in general, stood upon a Christian founda- 
tion, but were erring in some important point of the Christian 
faith. To the former class belong the Ebionites, the Gnos- 
tics, and the Manichseans; to the latter the different forms 
of Monarchianism. 

a) Heresy of the Ebionites. Notwithstanding the decision 
of the Apostolic Council and the clear statements of the 
Apostle Paul, many Christian Jews were unable to com- 
prehend that Christianity was something essentially 
new, and simply wished to reduce it to a new form of 



DOCTRINE 41 

the Jewish faith. They, therefore, considered an observance of 
the Mosaic law to be a necessary condition of salvation both for 
Jews and Gentiles; they held Christ to be a mere man, who at 
his baptism was endowed with divine powers; and they 
denied the apostolic authority of Paid. After the destruction 
of Jerusalem, they left the Church and formed an organ- 
ization of their own which was soon broken up. 

b) Gnosticism. Some of the newly converted found the 
gospel doctrine too simple, and sought, therefore, either 
the aid of Oriental religious systems (Zoroaster and Buddha) 
or by Alexandrian philosophy (Neo-Platonism) to come to 
a more thorough knowledge (gnosis, hence gnosticism) 
both in the essence of religion in general, and especially 
in the mysteries of redemption. That gnosticism which 
gathered its wisdom principally from the Oriental relig- 
ions has been called the Syrian, the other the Alexandrian. 
Gnosticism was widespread in the Roman Empire and 
reached its height about the year 150. It appeared 
only as a system of teaching, and formed no church organiza- 
tion. 

Gnosticism was in its fundamental character a 
heathen dualism into which the Christian idea of re- 
demption was inserted: 1) It recognizes two eternal 
principles, God and Matter. 2) God is believed to be im- 
personal, i. e. is without consciousness and will, neverthe- 
less he is unity and the source of all personal life. 3) The per- 
sonal essences (aeons) emanate by a natural necessity 
from God and constitute beings in a descending series of 
perfection. Together they form the world of light and 
fullness (pleroma). 4) Matter is either looked upon as a 
Chaos destitute of life and being (Alexandrian) or as a king- 
dom animated and ruled by Satan (Syrian). 5) The visible 
world is composed of matter and the lower seons which either 
because of their weakness have sunk down into matter (Alex- 



42 THE PERIOD OF THE MARTYRS 

andrian) or been captured by matter during its struggle 
against light (Syrian). From these elements the world 
has been formed by the demiurg (world-former), the 
highest of the seons fettered by matter. This being 
is identical with Jehovah, the God of the Jews. The 
Creation of the world bound the seons so much the 
stronger to matter and was, therefore, an evil act. The 
reason for this act was deemed to be either ignorance 
or jealousy on the part of the demiurg. 6) all that which 
comes from the world of aeons was good. Matter is 
evil. The depravity of man did consequently not con- 
sist in a perverted tendency of his will, but in his union 
with a material body. 7) Purification from sin and reunion with 
the world of light can be attained by a strict asceticism, 
tending toward the mortification of the body. Some, 
indeed, thought that wild orgies would bring the same 
result. 8) In order to lead and encourage mankind by 
example and doctrinein their work of purification and thus 
help them to regain the realms of light, the highest seon, Christ, 
descended to earth. His body was not real, for then he 
too would have been sinful, but only a show(docetism). 
All his deeds, his sufferings, his death, and resurrection 
were as a matter of course only apparent, and were only 
intended to present to mankind an example, not to 
bring about an atonement. 

Gnoticism is thus an extremely fantastic religious view. It 
contains, however, several elements by which it is able to fascinate 
poetical natures. To this belongs the strong contrast between the 
spirit striving upward towards the light and the body which by its 
weight holds him down to the earth and keeps him shut up as in a 
prison. Whoever has learned to look upon human relations in the 
light of Christianity admits that the body is from the beginning not 
intended to be a hindrance to man's spiritual life, but it has become 
so only by man's abuse of his free will. He knows also that free- 
dom from evil is gained by an inward regeneration and a sanctifica- 



DOCTRINE 43 

tion of both soul and body, and that in this way man is prepared 
to put on a new body which is no longer a hindrance, but a fitting 
organ for his immortal spirit. 

c) Manichseism derives its name from Mani or Mani- 
chams, a certain Persian, who lived about the year 270. 
This heretical system resembles closely the Syrian gnos- 
ticism, but it has a stronger developed dualism, Mani 
himself claimed to be the Comforter promised by Christ. 
Manichaeism became a widespread sect, which here and 
there maintained its existence even into the Middle Ages. 

Mani was born in Babylon in the beginning of the third century. 
His parents belonged to distinguished Persian families. His father 
was deeply interested in religious questions and exerted most likely 
a great influence upon his son in the same direction. At about 28 
years of age, Mani became a religious reformer in the new Persian 
kingdom just then established. He, however, at once became in- 
volved in a controversy with the powerful Magi and had for a long 
time to live in exile. Finally at the instigation of the Magi he was 
crucified about the year 276. 

The religious system of Mani is in its f oundamental principles 
taken from the oriental religions and shows traces of its origin 
in a glowing imagination. We quote some of the characteristic 
features of the same. 

The father of light and his twelve aeons form the world of light. 
In opposition to this stands the kingdom of darkness which is ruled 
by Satan and his demons. Tempted by the splendor of the kingdom 
of light, Satan made an attack upon it. God then placed an aaon, 
"the mother of light", as frontier-guard and defender of the king- 
dom of light. She gave birth to ' 'ideal man, ' ' who with the aid of 
the five pure elements, fire, light, water, air, and ether went to 
battle against the demons, but was vanquished and taken captive. 
God then sent as an aid another seon, "the living spirit," but too 
late, for a part of ideal man (Jesus patibilis) had already been 
swallowed up by the powers of darkness. But another part (Jesus 
impatibilis) was rescued and removed to the sun. Of the mixture 
which thus arose from light and darkness God caused the living 
spirit to form the visible world, in order that the captive light by 
degrees might be strengthened and set free. To prevent this Satan 



44 The period of the martyrs 

created after his own image as well as that of ideal man the first 
couple. In man, therefore, the two fundamental antagonistic prin- 
ciples are brought together; a good and an evil spirit struggle for 
supremacy over him; the former is drawn toward light, the latter 
toward darkness. The supremacy of the former is to be furthered 
by asceticism, by subduing the carnal lusts, and by the strictest 
abstinence possible from all sensual pleasures. 

The work of purification both in nature and in human life is di- 
rected and aided by the ideal man, Christ, dwelling in the sun, and the 
living spirit, dwelling in the ether. The demons endeavor by the 
Jewish and heathen religions to chain the human souls still stronger 
to the kingdom of darkness. Christ descended to the earth in an 
assumed body, to lead the spirits of light to freedom by his doc- 
trine. The Apostles misunderstood him and perverted his doctrine. 
Mani as the promised Paraclete ^Comforter) brought truth again 
into light. 

In the government Mani was himself the head of his Church. 
Under him stood 12 apostles, 72 bishops, and an indefinite number 
of presbyters and deacons. The Church comprised two classes: cate- 
chumens, or hearers (auditores), and the elect, or perfect. The 
latter were bound to the strictest asceticism, to celibacy, to absti- 
nence from animal food and all manual labor. They should eat only 
vegetable food, especially bread and oil, which were considered as 
the purest bearers of the light enslaved in matter. They were sup- 
ported by the catechumens. Baptism (with oil i communion t with- 
out wine) belonged to the secret worship of the elect. The souls of 
the perfect passed to the realm of light immediately after death; 
but the souls of the imperfect had to continue a process of purifica- 
tion in new bodies, before they could enter the state of bliss. 

d) Monarchianism. In direct opposition to the errors 
just mentioned the Church has, especially by the Apos- 
tles' Creed, given expression to its belief in God the 
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. It was soon felt 
to be necessary to explain by a logical process the rela- 
tion of the trinity to the unity of God. In opposition 
to the heathen polytheism it was necessary to defend 
the unity even to the denial of the trinity. In this way 
Monarchianism arose during the third century. 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 45 

What is common to all Monarchianism is the belief 
that in the deity there is only one person* This is further 
explained in two ways : either that the Father is alone 
thought to be God and the Son and Spirit only divine powers 
(dynamism), or that the Father, Son and Spirit are different 
manifestations in regular sequence of one and the same God (mo- 
dalism). 

A representative of Dynamism was Paul of Samosata, bishop 
of Antioch, deposed for heresy and unchristian life (272). Mo- 
dalism was developed by Sabellius, presbyter of Ptolemais of 
Cyrenaica about 250. A preparation for Modalism was Patripassian- 
ism, or the doctrine that Jesus who suffered and died for man was 
the same as the Father. These views were denounced by several 
church fathers, prominent among whom was Dionysius, bishop of 
Rome. 



B. THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL 
DEVELOPMENT. 

(A. D. 324-600). 

a. The Victory of Christianity over Paganism* The 
Constitution and Cultus of the Church. 

21. The Downfall of Paganism in the Roman Empire. The 

Emperor Constantine had taken the Christians under 
his protection against his competitors for the throne. 
When he became sole ruler (324), he favored Christianity 
strongly, but did not persecute the pagans . He moved his court 
from Rome, which was the stronghold of Paganism, to 
Byzantium or Constantinople (330). He was baptized 
on his death-bed (337). His sons, of whom Constantius 
ruled the longest, did not follow the wise policy of their 
father, but resorted to violent measures for the suppression of 



46 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

paganism. This was, however, not approved by many of 
the church fathers. 

During the reign of Julian the Apostate (361—363) 
a change took place. Led by an aversion to a religion 
which had not restrained his predecessors from cruelties 
to his nearest relatives, and by an enthusiastic devotion 
to the past he sought to revive Grseco-Roman paganism in 
a new form. Upon all who believed or simulated belief in 
the old gods he heaped tokens of his favor; the Chris- 
tians were not violently persecuted, but they were in 
every way ignored and even insulted. The reaction was 
short-lived. It only served to show that paganism had 
lost its vital strength and was doomed to go under. 

All the following Emperors placed themselves on the side of 
Christianity. Thecdosius the Great declared, in 392, all 
heathen sacrifices, to be high treason, and after Justinian 
I., in 529, had closed the school of philosophy in Athens, 
paganism had lost its last support in the Koman world. 

22. The Church and State. During this period the 
Church became a state Church, a change which, indeed, was 
not accomplished by a single stroke, but by a gradual 
process. The new conditions made it possible for the 
Church to exert a many-sided influence in civil matters, but at 
the same time the Church was placed in a state of de- 
pendence upon the civil authorities which was not always 
beneficial. The Emperor now became the protector of 
the Church. As such he was to guard its outward tran- 
quillity, but too often he showed a great desire to man- 
age its inner affairs as well. This he could the more 
easily do as the boundary lines between the civil and ec- 
clesiastical authorities were not so sharply drawn. It was gener- 
ally conceded that the Emperor should convene the 
Ecumenical Councils, sanction their decisions and ratify the 
appointments to higher ecclesiastical offices. 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 47 

The Church received one by one all the privileges 
that had belonged to the religious institutions of old 
Rome and several new ones besides. Thus it secured the 
right to receive legacies and was protected in the posses- 
sion of donations of various kinds. Church property 
was exempt from many of the levies that were otherwise 
imposed upon landed property. The Christian Churches 
also obtained the privilege of asylum. 

For the clergy ecclesiastical tribunals were es- 
tablished having jurisdiction over them in all cases, ex- 
cept offences outside of their office. These tribunals had 
the right in certain cases (e.g. in divorce cases and wills 
or testaments) to judge also between laymen. 

23. The Clergy. More than ever before the chasm now 
widens between the ordained servants of the Church, 
who were looked upon as God's inheritance (clerus) and 
the other people, known as laymen. The former were 
considered as separated from the latter not only by 
their official capacity, but even by higher religious and 
moral gifts and an indelible character, which according to 
the common view was imparted through ordination. 

Among the clergy themselves there was gradually 
developed a hierarchical distinction. Certain bishops were 
accorded the dignity of 'patriarchs, namely the bishops of 
Rome, Antioch and Alexandria (at the Council of Nicsea, 
325), of Constantinople (at the Council held there, 381), 
and of Jerusalem (at the Council of Chalcedon, 451). The 
patriarchs were to sustain the same relation to the 
metropolitan bishops as the latter sustained to the 
other bishops. The bishop of Rome never accepted the 
title of patriarch, yet strove the more openly for the 
supreme authority over the whole Church. His aspi- 
rations were, indeed, strongly opposed, especially by 
the patriarch of Constantinople, but his authority 



48 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

gradually gained ground. Among those who did the 
most to establish papal authority we notice Leo the 
Great (440—461) and Gregory the Great (590—604)- 
Toward the outward unity of the Church the patri- 
archate, the growing papal power, the ecumenical councils, in 
which all the bishops were represented, and the imperial 
authority, all contributed. 

In outward matters the clergy began to distinguish themselves 
from the laymen by their mode of dress and by the tonsure. The 
tonsure was first used by the monks, after the manner of the peni- 
tents of former times, but subsequently it was practiced also by 
the priests. It was intended to be a token of an inward devotion 
to God and consisted in the shaving of the head, either the front 
part (tonsura Pauli), or the whole head, or the crown of the head, 
leaving a wreath of hair all around, which was a symbol of Christ's 
crown of thorns. The last named, the so called tonsura Petri, 
became the most prevalent within the Roman Catholic Church. 

The unmarried state, or celibacy, had already during the era of 
the martyrs been looked upon as something specially meritorious. 
The monks were bound to celibacy by their vow of chastity. Soon 
it was strongly urged that celibacy should be obligatory also upon 
the other clergy, but the time was not yet ripe for legislation on 
this subject. According to universal opinion the unmarried state 
was considered more becoming to a pastor of the Church, and to 
marry after ordination was looked upon as highly improper. 

The lower clergy were appointed by the bishop with the consent 
of the congregation. The choice of bishops was made by the clergy 
and the people. Yet the influence of the common people in the 
choice soon became a mere formality. 

Gregory I., called the Great, descended from a family of senators 
in Rome and was born there between the years 540 and 550. His 
mother is reputed to have been a very pious woman. While a 
youth he studied jurisprudence, but at the same time he refreshed 
himself with the study of St. Augustine's writings and those of 
other church fathers. At an early age he was made imperial prefect 
of Rome, but soon abdicated the office. Within him there arose a 
great struggle. The plain and unaffected man soon found himself 
tempted to pride because of his high social position, and in order 
to put an end at once to this struggle, he suddenly withdrew to a 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 49 

cloister which he had prepared within his own house. His property- 
he devoted to the use of the cloisters. 

In the convent he discharged his ascetic duties in the most 
rigorous manner. From his quiet retreat in the cloister he was soon 
called by the bishop of Rome, was ordained a deacon, and sent as 
an ambassador to the imperial court of Constantinople. After a 
stay of six years there, he returned to Rome and was soon chosen 
abbot of the cloister which he had founded. 

Some time afterwards he saw, in the market-place of Rome, a 
number of Anglo-Saxon youths, who were to be sold as slaves. He 
became interested in them and resolved to go to England as a mis- 
sionary. In company with a number of other monks he was already 
on his way thither, when he was called back by the bishop of Rome. 
When in 590 the bishop died, Gregory was unanimously chosen by 
the clergy, senate, and people to fill the vacant place. Though he 
tried in every possible way to withdraw, he was finally compelled 
to accept the office. 

The times were troubled, when Gregory took charge of the 
most influential bishopric of the West. Famine and epidemics 
devastated Rome. The Lombards threatened from without; and 
from the Emperor in the remote Constantinople very little help 
could be expected. In addition to this the Church was torn up by 
internal dissensions, and a deep-seated moral corruption prevailed. 
Gregory had a delicate and frail constitution, yet his courage and 
strength for his arduous labors were kept up by his firm faith in the 
Roman episcopacy as destined by Providence to lead and control the 
nations in the West. In him the strength of the old Roman spirit 
in ruling and organizing was revived. In every direction he made 
his influence felt. For the reestablishment of church discipline, so 
much neglected of late, he labored with great zeal and success. 
The Lombards he reconciled. The possessions of the Church he 
caused to be carefully managed and devoted the increased income 
to the feeding of the poor, and the ransom of slaves and captives 
taken in war. 

Against the patriarch of Constantinople, who assumed the title 
of Ecumenical Patriarch, he entered a sharp protest. From the 
very beginning of his administration Gregory had called himself the 
"servant of the servants of God" (servus servorum Dei). 

His Anglo-Saxons he did not forget, although he was not able 
to go to them himself as missionary. In his place he sent, in 596, 



50 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

St. Augustine, a monk of the Benedictine order, together with 
about forty other monks to king Ethelbert of Kent. This king was 
married to a Christian princess from France. The work of convert- 
ing the Anglo-Saxons progressed without any serious difficulties. 
Already the following year Augustine could report that the king 
had been baptized, and that ten thousand Anglo-Saxons had fol- 
lowed his example. 

With Gregory there begins in many respects a new era for the 
Roman Church, and in him we can even now trace some of the 
characteristics of the Middle Ages. He laid that solid foundation 
on which subsequent popes built. Through his great reputation 
and untiring efforts he vastly extended the influence of the Roman 
episcopal see to France, England, Spain, and Africa, and it became 
more and more the custom in ecclesiastical controversies to appeal 
to the pope for arbitration. 

The monastic orders were strongly supported by Gregory. For 
his priests he wrote a book defining their duties (regulapastoralis). 
He labored zealously to give solemnity and splendor to the church 
service, especially to the eucharistic mass. In so doing he laid the 
foundation of the order of service which is still used in the Catholic 
Church. 

The doctrine of purgatory, of which we find traces even among 
the older church fathers, Gregory gave a prominent place in the 
doctrinal system of the Church, and propagated the opinion that the 
torments of the dead in purgatory could be ameliorated and 
shortened by good works and supplications on the part of their 
relatives. This could especially be done by celebrating the mass of 
the eucharist, which according to the view of Gregory was a real 
although a bloodless repetition of the sacrifice which Christ made 
on the cross. 

In Gregory the old Roman spirit manifests itself by shrewd po- 
litical measures, which we must call timely, although they can not 
be defended from a Christian standpoint. He wrote flattering letters 
to an emperor that had murdered his predecessor and his family, 
also to a Frankish princess who had many deeds of violence on her 
conscience. It is, however, uncertain whether he was well enough 
informed of such transgressions. The missionaries that were sent 
to England he urged to proceed slowly with the heathen, not destroy 
the temples of the idols, but to transform them to Christian 
churches; to give the heathen sacrificial feasts the character of 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 51 

Christian festivals to the glory of God; to put relics in the place of 
idols, etc. The same man, on the other hand, ordered a bishop of 
Sardinia to cast all the heathen remaining there into prison and 
cause them to undergo torture. 

Gregory's health had long been poor, and he spent the last days 
of his life on the sick-bed. His sufferings, which at times were very 
severe, he bore with great fortitude and patience. He died in 604. 

24. Divine Worship. During this period a change took 
place in the order of public worship from that of the era 
of the martyrs to that of the Middle Ages. The strict 
separation of the two parts of public worship was no 
longer a necessity, as the citizens of the state also gener- 
ally belonged to the Church. In addition to this the 
Eucharist was looked upon by the whole Church as a 
sacrifice and as such drew the attention of the faithful, 
everything else became subordinate to this act. Both 
circumstances together caused the service of the cate- 
chumens to be looked upon as an introduction to the 
mass of the Eucharist, which was all the time in course 
of development, until, through Gregory the Great, it ob- 
tained that character which it retained throughout the 
Middle Ages. 

In the Eastern Church, however, the service of the 
catechumens and, especially the sermon, was for a long 
time of greater importance than in the Western. 

St. Ambrose labored for the elevation of church music, 
and introduced a lively, rhythmical, congregational sing- 
ing. When by and by this degenerated Gregory the 
Great caused trained choruses to render the singing at 
public worship. Christian hymns were now composed 
in a richer measure than ever before. Besides St. Am- 
brose and Gregory the Great, who distinguished them- 
selves in this sphere, there also flourished at this time 
the celebrated Spanish composer Prudentius. 



52 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

The true worship was marred by the idolatrous ado- 
ration of martyrs and saints, and especially of the 
Virgin Mary. Relics and portraits of Christ and the 
saints were highly esteemed and were worshiped by 
devout genuflections. Pilgrimages were made to holy 
places and festivals were instituted in honor of angels 
and saints. This idolatrous tendency is explained by 
the fact that many of the newly converted nations had 
not yet been able to abandon their heathen beliefs en- 
tirety, and, therefore, they sought and easily found a 
compensation for their favorite heathen deities in the 
hosts of saints and angels worshiped in the Church. 

25. Church Festivals. Besides Easter and Pentecost, 
the Eastern Church had during the era of the martyrs 
celebrated January 6 as the Epiphany festival. This was 
done in commemoration of the baptism of Christ, only 
in a few churches in commemoration of his birth. In 
the West, Christmas Day, December 25, had since the 
middle of the fourth century been observed as the festi- 
val of the nativity of Christ. This soon became the 
custom in the whole Church, and our Epiphany was af- 
terwards observed in memory of the manifestation of 
Christ to the Wise Men of the East, as the Saviour also 
of the Gentiles. Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost be- 
came the principal festivals of the Church, and around 
them the festivals of the Church year (in the West) were 
grouped. 

Among the festivals that were celebrated in honor of 
the Virgin Mary, the angels, and the saints we notice 
especially the Day of Annunciation, March 25, John 
the Baptist's Day, June 24, and St. Stephen's Day, De- 
cember 26. Other festival days of that era are now ob- 
served on the Sunday following the date when they 
were originally celebrated. Such days are Candlemas, 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 



53 



Feb. 2, and St. Michael's Day, Sept. 29. All Saints' Day 
was not generally introduced before the Middle Ages. 

The name Candlemas (festum candelarum) was given to the 
day of the purification of the Virgin Mary partly because it was 
celebrated by processions with burning wax candles, partly because 
the candles which were subsequently used at the services were then 
consecrated. At the opening 
of the Middle Ages the festival 
of Circumcision was observed 
eight days after Christmas. Two 
centuries later this day was 
made New Year's Day. 

During the days preceding 
the forty days of Lent the world- 
ly Christians endeavored to make 
up for what they lost by the sub- 
sequent self-denials in sumpt- 
uous repasts and comical sports. 
Thus the Carnevals arose. 

26. Church Edifices. Mag- 
nificent chnrch edifices 
were erected. The older 
ones resembled the build- 
ings used by the Greeks 
and Komans as places for 
commerce and general as- 
semblies, and were like 
these, called basilicas. After- 
wards there arose in the 
East the Byzantine Cupola 

style. The most beautiful memorial of this style of 
architecture is the Church of St. Sophia in Con- 
stantinople. 

In front of the Church lay the outer court and in this there 
was a well or artificial fountain, the water of which was used for 
ablutions and for making the sign of the cross. Upon entering the 




R §4 §% # i #i ## fl 

Plan of a Basilica. 



54 



THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 



church we first come into a vestibule. Here the penitents and the 
catechumens had their places. Further toward the front was the 
nave or main body of the church. In the basilica this was divided 
into three or five apartments (naves) running lengthwise, separated 
from each other by rows of pillars. The center nave was the 
widest and generally the highest; a wall with window-openings was 
resting on each of the rows of pillars. These pillars were connected 
by round arches for the support of the walls. Furthest in front 
was the choir or chancel which formed the transept. The approach 
to this was by means of stairs, as the floor of the choir lay higher 




Interior of a Basilica 
(S. Apollinare in Ravenna.) 



than that of the other parts of the church. Right in front of the 
main part or nave of the church, the choir projected with a semi- 
circular recess (apsis) . The center nave, the choir (transept) , and 
the apsis formed a Roman cross. In the choir the bishop had his 
throne, and the other priests their places. The assembly of be- 
lievers took their places in the center nave. A basilica is easily 
recognized by its horizontal ceiling with exposed beams. 

In churches of the Byzantine style of architecture the columns 
were so arranged that the plan of the church formed a Greek cross 



56 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

with all four arms of equal length. Above the center of the church 
there arose a majestic cupola, a symbol af the vault of the firma- 
ment. This was often surrounded by smaller cupolas over the 
transepts. These were again offset by semi-domes (half cupolas) . 

In the choir stood the altar. Furthest in front in the center 
nave stood the reading-desk (ambon), from which the scripture 
passages of the day were read. The sermon was delivered either 
from the choir balustrade (cancelli) , from the ambon, or from 
some other place in the center nave. The bishop sometimes 
preached from his throne. Our present pulpit is only the old read- 
ing-desk raised to a higher level. 

Art had now entered the service of the Church, and it adorned 
the edifices, particularly the choir with a redundancy of gildings, 
paintings, and sculptures (especially images of Christ, the Virgin 
Mary, and the Apostles) . This was the more easily done since the 
faithful were liberal in their gifts to the sanctuaries, and the rich 
vied with each other in erecting costly church edifices and orna- 
menting them with all the splendor of the age. 

b. The Life. 

27. The Influence of the Church upon the Life. Through 
its new relation to the state the Church was able to 
exert a powerful influence everywhere upon all moral 
and social relations. The mode of viewing life was en- 
tirely changed. A higher grade of morals was intro- 
duced both in the legislation, administration of justice, 
and common usages. Heathen customs such as expos- 
ure of infants, immoral plays and the like were 
abolished. The true worth of man was acknowledged, 
slavery was restricted, matrimony obtained greater 
sanctity, and Sunday-rest was enjoined by law. 

Two means were used by the Church to bring to ma- 
turity in faith and practice those who had placed them- 
selves under her influence: the catechumenate and the 
penance. 

The catechumenate had its origin in the previous 
period of the Church, but it was during this second 



THE LIFE 57 

period that it came to its full development. It was of 
great value during an age, when men were tempted to 
seek admission into the Church for temporal advan- 
tages. In order to receive the rite of baptism it was 
necessary for the candidate to acquire in the school of 
the catechumens Christian ways of thinking as well as 
acting. In the early days it was principally adults that 
were baptized. For duriug the reign of Constantine the 
Christians formed a minority of the population in the 
Roman Empire ; furthermore it had become customary 
because of an erroneous opinion of the effect of this 
sacrament to postpone the rite of baptism to as late a 
date as possible, even to the death-bed. Gradually con- 
ditions changed ; toward the close of the second period 
the Church had received into its fold nearly all the 
citizens of the state. Infant baptism now became prev- 
alent. At the same time the catechumenate steadily 
lost its former importance. 

Through penance the Church endeavored to exert its 
influence over its baptized members. The Church could 
no longer exercise its former rigorous discipline, there- 
fore, the public penance was never carried out. In its 
place private penance was introduced. This, however, was 
not fully developed before the Middle Ages, although it 
was strongly advocated by many of the church fathers. 

The catechumenate generally covered a period of not less than 
two years for each individual. It was divided into three sections or 
courses. The first had for its aim to communicate to the cate- 
chumens the most general ideas of a personal God and man's de- 
pendence on him. It lasted but a short time. The second course 
gave instruction in the particular truths of Christianity. The 
greatest stress was laid on the history of redemption. This course 
required the longest time. To the third course, which lasted only 
one or two weeks, only candidates for baptism were admitted. They 
received the formulated creed and the Lord's Prayer which together 



58 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

with the sacraments constituted the mysteries of the Church. 
These were accessible only to the baptized members of the Church 
and such as were about to become members. 

Great stress was laid on the sincerity of a person's conversion. 
It should be voluntary and well considered. When a person made 
known his intentions to become a Christian, he was not received at 
once, but inquiries were made as to his motives for such a step. A 
brief historical outline of the "Kingdom of Heaven" was put into 
his hands. If the motive was a true one, and the person after 
becoming acquainted with the nature of the Kingdom of God, 
still continued in his determination to become a member of this 
Kingdom, he was received among the catechumens. From this 
time he bore the name of Christian. Even admission into the 
highest course of the catechumenate was made upon the application 
of the catechumen. Thus it often happened that many catechumens 
remained in the second course longer than was customary, even 
during a greater part of their life. 

The admission into the first course of the catechumenate was 
sealed by the sign of the cross; into the second be laying on of 
hands. When the catechumens made application to the third 
course, that of the candidates for baptism, they were required 
to give their names to be entered in the record of members. 

During the catechumenate the young Christians were also in- 
troduced into the devotional life of the Church. It was their privi- 
lege as well as duty to be present at the service of the catechumens 
(Missa catechumenorum) and they should well consider the truths 
they had heard. They were also permitted to be present during 
the prayers that the Church at the beginning of Missa fidelium 
offered for them. With the candidates for baptism were held 
special examinations ( scrutinia) , when they solemnly renounced the 
devil, his ways and works, and the exorcist conjured the unclean 
spirit to depart from them — acts which together with the confes- 
sion of faith took place just before the baptismal act. 

To facilitate this act there were built in close proximity to the 
church baptismal chapels with large water basins into which the 
candidates descended. The white robes in which they were clothed 
were worn during the week following baptism. 

When the rite of confirmation followed immediately upon bap- 
tism, the candidate partook together with the congregation of the 
sacrament of the altar. Otherwise he had to wait until after 
confirmation. 



THE LIFE 59 

28. Conditions within the Church. Christianity con- 
tinued even now to show its sanctifying and regenerat- 
ing power. The great changes it wrought in the social 
life of the times as well as the noble, Christian charac- 
ters so numerous in this age testify to this fact. Besides 
the many distinguished church fathers were found many 
men and women in humble station (e. g. the mother of 
Chrysostom and the mother of Augustine) strong in 
faith, love, and self-denial. The numerous benevolent 
institutions that were founded for the aid of the poor 
and the sick bear beautiful testimony to the power of 
Christian love within the Church. 

Many circumstances, however, conduced to lower the 
standard of the Christian life. Since the confession of 
Christianity no longer occasioned outward suffering 
and distress, but on the contrary became a necessary 
requirement for full citizenship, it is evident that the 
number of nominal Christians would increase to an 
alarming degree. When, furthermore, the ecclesiastical 
offices offered large salaries and high distinction, it be- 
came impossible even to exclude from them persons of 
a worldly mind who sought only their own good, not 
that of the Church. As a consequence the Christian life 
in the Church began to lose its tone and vigor, and the 
unsound tendencies that manifested themselves even 
during the era of the martyrs now became more and 
more alarming. 

Wordly life and corrupt morals found their way into all classes 
of society; more and more confidence was placed in the intercession 
of saints, outward church service, and good works. The concern 
for pure doctrine lost itself in those passionate and petty quarrels 
that threatened completely to quench all Christian love. The de- 
cline went on step by step. While the Church in the fourth century 
inspired great hopes, at the end of this period it truly merited the 
chastisement which befell it in the West, in a milder form, through 



60 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

the barbarian migrations, and in the East, in a more terrible form, 
through the rise and spread of Islam. 

29. Hermits and Monks. Piety assumed a peculiar 
form in the life of the hermits and monks. Both classes 
sought to withdraw from the world and its vanities in 
order to devote themselves more fully to spiritual 
things. They laid great stress on the mortification of 
the body by means of fasts and other ascetic practices 
and sought by prayer and contemplation a mystic 
union with the divine. 

The hermits lived secluded not only from the world, 
but also from each other, in the deep solitudes of deserts 
and wastes. Most renowned among them was St. An- 
thony of Thebes in Egypt, who died in the year 356 at 
the age of 105 years. He and others like him, notwith- 
standing their eccentricities, stand forth as heroes in 
self-denial, devotion to God, and love to mankind. But 
with many others,, who only imitated the true hermits, 
the defects of hermit-life, such as spiritual pride, indo- 
lence, and uncurbed self-will, soon became manifest. To 
overcome such defects, hermit associations were formed. 
The first one of these was organized on the island of 
Tabenmp, in the Nile, by Pachomius (t 348) thus form- 
ing a transition from the hermit to the monastic life. 

The monks (pomxot) lived in seclusion from the world, 
but in close fellowship with each other. Their abodes 
were called cloisters. At the head of each cloister stood 
an abbot. The monks were bound to obedience, chastity 
(to live unmarried), and poverty (to renounce all posses- 
sion of private property). Their time should be divided 
between devotional exercises and light manual labor. 
Many women also withdrew from the world and led 
lives simular to that of the monks. Thev were called 



THE LIFE 61 

nuns. For their benefit nunneries were established and 
placed under the direction of abbesses. 

Contemplation and monastic life are pre-eminently 
characteristic of the East, and this part of the Empire 
was rapidly filled with cloisters, where the monks soon 
sank into gross ignorance and idleness. But also in the 
West monastic life found many warm supporters, and 
cloisters were multiplied here too. St. Benedict of 
Nursia arose as the reformer of the life in the cloisters. 
A. D. 529 he founded Monte Cassino in Campania, Italy, 
which for a long time became the model for most of the 
cloisters in the West. The order that he established 
was named after him the Benedictine Order. In his regula- 
tions great stress was laid upon the employment of the 
monks in manual labor (agriculture, gardening, sloyd) 
and studies. 

Many, indeed, entered monastic life from sinister 
motives (vanity, indolence, unwillingness to perform 
military duty, etc.) and thus caused its rapid decline. 
But, on the other hand, a great number of the monks 
were pious, industrious, and self-denying men, and 
through them the convents became a great blessing, 
especially during the migrations and the early part of 
the Middle Ages. During these times of brutality and 
violence they afforded a refuge and a home for the per- 
secuted and oppressed. Within their peaceful walls 
classic learning and literature were preserved, and 
schools were founded where the young received such in- 
struction as the age could afford. Through the influence 
of the inmates of the convents the warlike nations 
learned to cherish and respect peaceful occupations. 
Waste and barren lands were changed by their industry 
into fertile fields, and about the convents villages arose, 
which soon grew into cities. The convents also contrib- 



62 



THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 



uted to the spread of Christianity. From them the 
missionary efforts went forth which finally brought the 
whole Teutonic race into the folds of the Church. 

The chief causes of monastic and hermit life were on the one 
hand that utter disregard for the body and the undue importance 
placed upon asceticism which had entered into the Christian con- 
ception, on the other hand the fear of contamination from the 
worldly life that surrounded the Christians in the heathen world. 
This form of piety had already begun to manifest itself during the 
foregoing era and had existed even before both among the Jews 
(the Essenes) and the Gentiles (the Therapeutics in Egypt). 

The greatest extremists in asceticism were the stylites or pillar- 
saints. The first and most renowned among them was Simeon 
Stylites, who lived near Antioch during the fifth century. This 
remarkable man had already as a boy of thirteen been strongly 
impressed by Christianity and had upon the advice of his Christian 
teachers devoted himself to an ascetic life first in the cloisters, af- 
terwards as a hermit. Finally he took up his abode on a stone- 
pillar, which he time and again caused to be built higher, so as to 
be nearer heaven. At last the pillar was about sixty feet high. 
On this he spent more than thirty years in a standing posture, sur- 
rounded by a railing which neither allowed him to sit nor lie down. 
He spent most of his time in devotional exercises. He took but 
little sleep, and only during certain hours of the day, between 3 and 
6 o'clock in the afternoon, could he be induced to speak to the 
multitudes that gathered at the foot of the pillar. The visitors 
brought him food which he hoisted by means of a rope. He is 
said to have inured himself so far to privation and hunger that he 
literally observed the forty days' fast during Lent. 

This strange form of piety found great admirers in its day. The 
fame of the pillar saint spread far and wide, and great multitudes 
made pilgrimages to his place of abode. The nomads of the desert 
honored him as a supernatural being and gathered around him to 
receive his benediction. Great numbers of them were induced by 
him to receive baptism. Even emperors asked his advice in ec- 
clesiastical matters, and prominent church fathers bestowed on him 
their admiration. 

While it cannot be denied that Simeon's piety was much per- 
verted, yet many of his eccentricities may be justified by the con- 
ditions of the times. The theory that he was actuated wholly or 



THE LIFE 63 

chiefly by spiritual pride is not supported by the accounts we have 
of him. "Simeon is a coin of an uncommon kind", says Theodore- 
tus. With him such a life might have been prompted by true piety. 
The same cannot be said about his many imitators. On the minds 
of the western people saints of this kind made very little impres- 
sion, and the only attempt there made to imitate him was prompt- 
ly stopped. 

In the early stages of his life, St. Benedict of Nursia reminds 
us of Simeon the Stylite, but not so in his later days. Like Simeon, 
Benedict early (at 14 years of age) withdrew from his associates 
to live a life devoted to God, accompanied by the servant who had 
taken care of him in his childhood; but when her reports of the 
boy's sanctity drew crowds of curious people around him, he left 
her and went deeper into the wilderness. In his wanderings he 
found a pious monk to whom he communicated his purpose to be- 
come a hermit. The monk urged him to carry out his purpose, 
showed him a cave where he could live unnoticed, and promised to 
provide him with the necessaries of life. Benedict spent three 
years in this solitude. It was a period of continual exercise in 
prayer, meditation, and mortification of evil desires. But this was 
only to be a preparation for that great work which he was destined 
to carry out for the good of his fellowmen. 

Some shepherds found him and through them his hiding place 
was made known to the people of the neighborhood. Many flocked 
around him to see and hear him. The monks in a neighboring 
cloister came and requested him to become their abbot. As he well 
knew their excesses, he yielded to their request only after a long 
hesitation. They soon became tired of him and the strict discipline 
he attempted to introduce. They are said to have tried to poison 
him, but by some accident the attempt failed. Benedict then left 
the cloister and again retired into the wilderness. 

Many young men now gathered around him. He decided to 
found cloisters after a new plan and with stricter discipline than 
had hitherto been practiced. The first building soon became in- 
adequate, and he was compelled to found new ones. Finally twelve 
cloisters had thus arisen with twelve monks in each. For all these 
institutions Benedict was a sort of abbot superior. Thus seventeen 
years were spent. During this time Benedict had acquired sufficient 
experience to found an independent order. 

But even this pious and earnest man had his enemies, who did 
not refrain from using the vilest means to destroy the prosperous 



64 



THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 



institutions which had grown up under his fostering care. He 
therefore, resolved to leave the place and to go with a few of his 
most intimate friends to the secluded Mount Cassino in Campania, 
in Southern Italy. Here heathenism still prevailed, and on the 
mountain there still stood a temple sacred to Apollo. Reverence 
for the personality of Benedict and the power of his preaching soon 




The Cloister of Monte Cassino. 



converted the heathen to the Christian faith. The temple he caused 
to be torn down and founded on its site the famous convent of 
Monte Cassino. 

The convent regulations of Benedict were not intended to de- 
velop only a onesided ascetic life. He advised frugality in food 
and drink, but he also warned against so weakening the body by 
fasting and vigils as to unfit one for engaging in useful work. He 



THE DOCTRINE 65 

knew also that a monk had other enemies to overcome than his 
sensuality. Pride and self-will seemed to him equally dangerous. 
Against these sins he placed that absolute obedience that a monk 
owes his abbot as a most efficient help. He laid great stress upon 
charity and benevolence toward his f ellowmen. He would not have 
his monks, as the custom was in the East, to work only for their 
own support, but they should also be ready to render service to 
others. 

Little did Benedict foresee the world-wide influence his order 
was destined to exert. He had never aimed at making his establish- 
ment a power in the world at large. He had simply intended it to 
be a place of refuge for all who sought to withdraw from the world 
to live a quiet life with God. There were schools within the con- 
vents, but they were originally intended for the novices, i. e. for 
such as had applied for entrance to the convent. Before such ad- 
mission could be granted them they were placed on probation for 
one year. Literary and scientific pursuits were not introduced by 
Benedict, but by Cassiodorus, who had served as secretary under 
the Ostrogothic king, but had afterwards associated himself with 
the monks of Monte Cassino (538). The earnest life of faith and 
love fostered in these convents spread light and warmth to all their 
surrondings, and it may be truthfully said that no other establish- 
ment did so much to maintain Christian faith and culture in the 
world as the Benedictine order during its best days. 

Having finished his work, Benedict fell asleep in the midst of 
his disciples, 543. His last act was a prayer, commending his soul 
to his heavenly Father. 

c. The Doctrine. 

30. The Conditions for the Development of Doctrine, During 
the past centuries the Church had gradually and with 
ever increasing clearness appropriated the truths of 
Christian revelation. Now there arose a positive de- 
mand for reason to penetrate these truths and to 
formulate them in definite language. The Church was 
in many respects well prepared for such work. From 
the ancient Greeks she had received the means afforded 



66 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

by culture; a keen interest in doctrinal questions pre- 
vailed within the Church; and a number of distinguished 
church fathers arose, equally renowned for learning and 
penetration, and for Christian fervor and spirituality. 
These church fathers may be grouped in three schools. 
One of these, the Western School, had retained the same 
practical character as during the previous period, and. 
was now represented by such men as Ambrose, bishop of 
Milan, Jerome, a monk in Bethlehem and translator of 
the Vulgate version, the authorized bible of the Roman 
Catholic Church (t420), Augustine (par. 33), and the bish- 
ops of Rome, Leo the Great and Gregory the Great. The 
Alexandrian School still believed in an allegorical exposi- 
tion of the Scriptures and manifested a tendency to 
unite contraries in a mystic unity. To this class we reck- 
on the renowned church historian Eusebius, bishop of 
Caesarea in Palestine (t 340) and Athanasius (par. 31). 
The Antiochian School had arisen in place of that of Asia 
Minor. The members of this school adhered to the 
literal interpretation of the bible, and strove to acquire 
a clear conception of doctrinal questions, and in the 
consciousness to keep contraries distinct. Most re- 
nowned among them is the venerable patriarch Chrysos- 
tom (f 407). 

When human reason endeavors to penetrate the 
mysterious depths of Christian truth, differences of 
opinion will necessarily arise. Such was the case now. 
The differences of opinion met each other in sharp doc- 
trinal controversies. Into these mingled, sadly enough, 
human passions, intrigues, and pride, but at the same 
time a great zeal for doctrinal purity and steadfastness 
in Christian faith became manifest. The doctrinal ques- 
tions under consideration were the Doctrine of the Trinity; 



THE DOCTRINE 67 

of the two Natures in the Person of Christ, of Human Depravity 
and Divine Grace in Man's Conversion. 

Distinguished representatives of the Alexandrian school were 
the three great Cappadocian church fathers. Among these the most 
renowned was Basil (f 379), bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. He 
won distinction not only for his ability and learning, his piety and 
untiring activity in the service of the Church, but equally so for 
his self-denial and disinterested devotion to his fellowmen. To be 
able to support a hospital for the afflicted, he spent his days in 
poverty and privation. At his side we find his faithful friend, the 
resolute defender of the doctrine of the divinity of Christ, Gregory of 
Nazianzus, and also his younger brother, the profound theologian 
Gregory of Nyzza. 

The Antiochian school also included the excellent exegetical 
writer Theodorus, bishop of Mopsuestia (350—429) and his disciples, 
Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus (390—457), and Ibas, bishop of Edessa. 
Against the first named and his writings, as well as a few of the 
works of the two last named, the Fifth Ecumenical Council, of 
Constantinople, 553, at the instigation of Emperor Justinian, hurled 
an anathema. The Emperor did this hoping thereby to win over 
the Monophysites to the Church, but soon found himself deceived. 
His measure caused new controversies to arise within the Church, 
which continued long after his death. 

St. Ambrose was born about the year 340 in the city of Treves. 
His father was governor-general of Gaul. After his father's death 
the family removed to Rome, and here young Ambrose received 
a good education. Like many other gifted young men at that time 
he studied jurisprudence and oratory to prepare himself for the 
higher offices in the state. While yet a youth, he was ap- 
pointed governor of a part of Northern Italy and was stationed at 
Milan. 

When, in 374, a new bishop was to be elected, a bitter feud 
arose between the Catholic and the Arian factions. Ambrose, in his 
official capacity as governor, was present and conseled moderation 
and unity. At this juncture a child's voice was suddenly heard 
crying, ''Ambrose Bishop" (Ambrosius episcopus). This was re- 
garded by the people as a voice from God, and all present hailed 
with joy the highly esteemed governor as their bishop. In vain did 
he decline this honor, alleging that he had never held any eccle- 
siastical office, was not even baptized, but was only a catechumen. 



68 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

He was forced to yields was baptized, and after eight days, was con- 
secrated bishop. 

With great zeal did he enter upon the duties of his new 
office, and especially did he strive to acquire the necessary knowl- 
edge. Most of his wealth he gave to the poor. He entirely 
changed his mode of life and willingly subjected himself to the 
severest asceticism. 

He lived in the midst of troubled and stormy times. The con- 
test between Catholicism and Arianism was still undecided in Italy. 
Ambrose was not intolerant. In one of his works he says: "We 
will endeavor to persuade our opponents; we will pray and weep 
before the Lord. We desire not to smite, but to heal." But when 
the government interfered in behalf of Arianism, he boldly opposed 
the measure, and by his great prestige and resolute bearing, he 
contributed not a little to the final victory of Catholicism. Thus, for 
instance an empress of the Arian faith sought by all means in her 
power to induce him to surrender to the Arians a certain church in 
Milan, but without success. He did not even yield to force. By 
his great personality he even won over to his side the soldiers who 
had been sent out to coerce him. 

In the same resolute manner he afterwards opposed the power- 
ful Emperor Theodosius I. In the year 390 his military governor 
in Thessalonica had been put to death by a mob. Upon the inter- 
cession of Ambrose and several other bishops, Theodosius had prom- 
ised to be lenient to the city. Upon the advice of others, the 
Emperor, however, soon changed his mind and caused his soldiers to 
take the most cruel revenge. When on a certain occasion a great 
number of the inhabitants of the city were assembled in the amphi- 
theater to witness the races, he caused the place to be surrounded 
by his soldiers, who then entered and brutally massacred without 
distinction thousands of both men and women. 

When Theodosius shortly afterwards came to Milan, Ambrose at 
first withdrew to the country, whence he sent a most earnest and 
affectionate letter to the Emperor, pointing out his cruelty and 
exhorting him to show his penitence by public penance, emphat- 
ically declaring that, before this was done, he could not in the 
Emperor's presence celebrate the Lord's Supper. Theodosius was 
greatly moved. He laid aside his costly ornaments, publicly con- 
fessed his guilt, and humbly asked forgiveness. For St. Ambrose 
he ever afterwards felt the greatest respect, as one who had had 
the courage to tell him a wholesome truth. 



THE DOCTRINE 69 

Ambrose took great pains with his sermons, and is regarded 
as the greatest pulpit orator in the West during the early period of 
the Church. He also labored to introduce a better liturgy for public 
worship, and wrote several doxologies and hymns (among these the 
Te Deum) . He introduced more vigorous church singing, which by 
its responses appealed more strongly to the people, whose active 
participation in the singing was also secured. 

Ambrose died in Milan on Good Friday, A. D. 397. All Italy 
mourned him. His works are numerous and mostly of a practical 
nature. He is especially to be remembered as the leader of the 
Western Church at a time of great commotion and unrest. 

Chrysostom was one of the foremost champions of truth in the 
early Church. His real name was John. The name of Chrysostom, 
meaning Golden Mouth, was given him on account of his unrivalled 
eloquence. 

He was born 347 in Antioch, where his father held a high mili- 
tary position. His mother, Anthusa, was a pious woman, who after 
the early death of his father bestowed her utmost care upon the 
education of her only son. She was so confident of the steadfast- 
ness of her son in the Christian faith that she intrusted his secular 
education to the renowned heathen teacher and orator Libanius. 
He soon became the foremost pupil of this famous teacher. He 
devoted himself especially to jurisprudence. The profession of law 
did not, however, appeal to him, and he soon abandoned it for a 
higher calling. 

For three years he studied under the bishop of his native city 
and then received baptism. He would now have preferred to with- 
draw from the world to live a strict ascetic life, but upon his 
mother's entreaty he abandoned the thought at least for the present. 
He was then appointed bible-reader (the lowest office in the Church) . 
After his mother's death he was free to follow his own inclination, 
and joined a brotherhood of monks, whose abode was the mountain 
regions near Antioch. There he spent six years, occupied with 
prayer, bible study, pious meditations, and manual labor. Thus he 
prepared himself for his great life-work. 

In the year 380, he returned to Antioch, was ordained deacon, 
and, six years later, presbyter. Now commenced his brilliant 
career as pulpit orator. For nearly twelve years he continued his 
work as the second to the bishop in the great congregation, which 
possibly may have numbered more than one hundred thousand mem- 



70 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

bers. His duties he discharged with great zeal and superior ability 
and became widely known for his eloquent sermons. 

Eutropius, a favorite of the Emperor Arcadius, had on a centain 
occasion heard Chrysostom preach at Antioch, and upon his recom- 
mendation Chrysostom was called to Constantinople, and was there 
consecrated bishop and patriarch in the beginning of the year 398. 
Here he held a truly influential, but at the same time difficult and 
perilous, position. Of a simple and ascetic life, of unflinching 
courage, and unaccustomed to intrigues, he was now placed between 
a despotic court with its caprices on the one hand, and a worldly 
clergy and a profligate populace on the other. In addition to this, 
the Arians, who had until recently been the ruling party, were very 
influential in the higher circles and gave him much trouble. He 
may at times have been a little too rash and imprudent in his words 
and actions. 

He labored, however, with great zeal and energy in the field, to 
which he had been called. Among other things he worked for the 
spread of Christianity among the Goths, with whom the Eastern 
Empire at that time stood in the closest relation. For the Gothic 
mercenary soldiers in Constantinople he caused special services to 
be held in their own language. 

Before, long the relations between him and Eutropius became 
strained. The latter, a haughty and despotic upstart, would not 
listen to the admonitions of Chrysostom, but on »the contrary 
demanded obedience and submission from him. As the heathen 
temples had formerly been places of refuge for the persecuted, so 
were the Christian churches now. By an imperial edict, dictated 
by Eutropius, the churches were deprived of this privilege, and many 
an unfortunate victim was torn with violence from the altar to 
which he had fled for protection. 

But soon the tide turned. Overthrown by the Goths Eutropius 
himself fled to the Cathedral church in Constantinople to save his 
life. Here Chrysostom found him the following Sunday. Before 
an immense concourse of people, that had hastened thither to wit- 
ness so rare a spectacle, he delivered a powerful sermon on "The 
Vanity of Vanities", which served at once as a strong rebuke to the 
fallen courtier, a warning to the people, and an appeal for mercy 
on behalf of the unfortunate man. When the soldiers afterwards 
sought by force to carry him away, Chrysostom protected him at 
the peril of his own life. The privilege of asylum for the churches 
he would maintain at any cost. 



THE DOCTRINE 71 

A more formidable enemy arose against him in the arrogant 
bishop Theophilus of Alexandria. This man persecuted mercilessly 
a number of monks who were adherents of the teaching of Origen. 
They fled to Constantinople and were kindly received by Chrysos- 
tom, who, however, did not share in their belief. By this he 
brought upon himself the hatred of Theophilus. Through his insti- 
gation Chrysostom was deposed without sufficient cause by a, 
meagerly attended synod held at Chalcedon and was afterwards 
banished by the Emperor. He had hardly left the capital, when an 
earthquake spread terror and consternation on every hand, and the 
threats of the populace so terrified the court that Chrysostom 
was speedily recalled and with great demonstrations of joy was 
welcomed back by the people. 

A few months later the Empress Eudoxia caused a statue of 
silver to be erected in her honor. Chrysostom censured in a sermon 
the idolatrous honors and the wild orgies that had taken place at 
the unveiling of the statue. This aroused the anger of the Empress 
against him. On the day of John the Baptist he is said to have 
exclaimed in his sermon: ' 'Again Herodias rages, again she demands 
the head of John the Baptist on a charger." Many times before 
the Empress had been stung by his sharp rebukes. Now the meas- 
ure was heaped. Another synod declared him deposed for the sec- 
ond time, and in 404 he was exiled to a small town on the frontiers 
of Armenia. Even here he sought by numerous writings to work 
for the edification and spiritual welfare of his Church. 

The intercession of the Western Emperor and the bishop of 
Rome only resulted in his banishment to a still more distant place, 
near the eastern shore of the Black Sea. By the troublesome 
journey thither his last strength was exhausted. He died, in Sept. 
407, in a small chapel near the road, before he had reached the sea. 
His last words were: "God be praised for all things.'* These words 
had been his motto in life. 

A later emperor, son of Eudoxia, about thirty years afterwards, 
brought his remains to Constantinople, where they were laid to rest 
with great ceremony in the Church of the Apostles. 

As an expositor of Scripture, Chrysostom belongs to the school 
of Antioch. He was, however, pre-eminently a preacher. There are 
over a thousand of his sermons still extant. They are, it is true, 
not of classic simplicity, but rather full of oriental rhetoric and 
pompousness, yet they show, viewed from the age to which they 



72 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

belong, that Chrysostom well merits the name he has received, and 
that it is not without reason that he has been called the greatest 
pulpit orator of the Greek Church. 

31. The Doctrine of the Trinity. In the year 318, Arms, 
a presbyter of Constantinople, propounded the doctrine 
that the Son of God was not an eternal and divine per- 
son, but that he was a created being — created in time — 
yet of all creatures he Avas the first and the greatest, 
and that through him all the rest of the universe has 
been created. The more clear-sighted churchmen saw at 
once that this doctrine assailed the very foundation of 
Christianity, and, therefore, turned against Arius, and 
caused a synod at Alexandria, in 321, to denounce his 
doctrine and exclude him from the fellowship of the 
Church. In the mean time Arius had gathered a number 
adherents, who either did not understand the real im- 
portance of the question, or were unable to rise to a 
biblical view of the divine nature of Christ. A wide- 
spread controversy was the result. To settle this dis- 
pute, Constantine the Great convened the First Ecumenic- 
al Church Council at Niceea in 325. A young presbyter, 
named Athanasius, succeeded by his fiery eloquence and 
convincing arguments to gain both the Emperor and 
nearly all the bishops over to his view. It was here de- 
cided as a general creed of the Church that Jesus Christ is 
very God of very God, of one substance with the Father, and be- 
gotten of the Father from eternity. 

The Arians were still powerful and, through the 
favor of certain Emperors, succeeded, time and again, 
in securing control in the Empire. As a consequence 
this controversy continued to rage for a long time with 
unabated fury. At the same time a new sect arose, 
called the Macedonians (from their leader Macedonius) 
or Pneumatomachians, who placed the Holy Spirit only 



THE DOCTRINE 73 

within the realm of creation, and represented him as 
the first being created through the Son. 

In order to bring the old and the new doctrinal con- 
troversies to a close, Theodosius the Great convened 
the Second Ecumenical Council, at Constantinople, in 
381. Here the decree of the Nicene Council was endorsed, 
and the doctrine of the Church concerning the Holy 
Ghost formulated, i. e. that he proceeds from the Father and is 
to be worshiped and glorified together ivith the Father and the Son. 

These definitions have all been summarized in two 
Confessions or Symbola: the Niceno-Constantinopolitan and 
the Athanasian (so called from Athanasius, but formu- 
lated toward the end of the fifth century). The latter 
contains also the decree of the Council of Chalcedon 
(par. 32) concerning the person of Christ. 

Athanasius, known as the Father of Orthodoxy, was born of 
Christian parents about the year 300. He was early instructed in 
the Christian faith as well as Greek philosophy and literature. He 
soon attracted public attention through his ability, his devotion to 
the Church, and his strict mode of life. He was early made dea- 
con, and in this capacity he also served as private secretary to his 
bishop, Alexander, with whom he stood in a most intimate relation. 
He also accompanied him to the First Ecumenical Council, in Nicaea 
(325) . To settle the Arian controversy, the Emperor, Constantine, 
had found it advisable to summon the bishops of the whole Empire. 
The greatest number came, however, from the East, only a few 
from the West, from Spain only one. The whole number was 
about 300, Among them were many learned, pious, and eloquent 
men; yet there were no doubt many of an undecided character. 
Outspoken Arians there were but few. The greater number were 
unsettled in their views, ready to yield to conciliatory measures. 

To begin with there were many negotiations and disputations 
with Arius, and in these Athanasius distinguished himself by his 
energetic and successful defence of the doctrine which was after- 
wards adopted by the Council. Finally, on the appointed day, the 
Emperor, Constantine, appeared, clad in his imperial robes, accom- 
panied by a large retinue of councilors, officers of state, and his 



74 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

imperial guards in gorgeous uniforms. The bishops and other del- 
egates of the Council had previously repaired to the large assembly- 
hall of the palace. The bishop of Antioch delivered the address of 
welcome to the Emperor, who in turn addressed the assembly and 
counseled harmony and conciliatory measures. When the Council 
had been thus officially and solemnly opened, the most distinguished 
of the bishops acted in turn as moderators at the deliberations. 

Regarding the proceedings of the Council only the most im- 
portant points can be mentioned here. After an Arian form of 
confession had been rejected, the doctrinal formulas found in the 
Nicene Creed were at last adopted. The powerful influence of 
Athanasius as well as the opinion of the Emperor, who sided with 
him, contributed largely toward the final result. Five bishops who 
refused to ratify the condemnation of Arius were, together with 
him. excommunicated by the Council and banished by the Emperor. 
Bishop Alexander died three years later and Athanasius became 
his successor. The times in which he lived were full of contention 
and unrest, and he himself often took part in the strife with an 
ill-advised zeal. Many opponents arose with all manner of accusa- 
tions against him. Among others that he had maltreated refrac- 
tory bishops and presbyters, that he had even caused one bishop to 
be put to death. At a synod, in Tyre (335), he was deposed, 
although the bishop alleged to have been put to death appeared in 
person before the assembly. He appealed to the Emperor, but by 
the machinations of his opponents the Emperor was induced to 
banish him to Treves without trial or sentence, because he was "a 
disturber of the peace of the Church." 

After the death of Constantine, Athanasius returned to Alex- 
andria (338) . But as he continued to remove his opponents and 
appoint orthodox bishops in Egypt, he was again accused. At the 
command of Constantius an opponent was consecrated bishop and 
installed in his office by military force (340). Shortly before, 
Athanasius had voluntarily withdrawn to Rome, where he was well 
received. The six following years he resided in the West. 

In the mean time the Arian bishop had died, and, in 346, Atha- 
nasius returned and without opposition resumed the duties of his 
office, the people of Alexandria hailing his return with great joy. 
But the Emperor continued his enmity toward him, and finally gave 
orders to the imperial governor to arrest him. During the night 
between the 8 and 9 of Feb. , 356, he entered the church, where 
Athanasius was holding vigil services. During the tumult that 



THE DOCTRINE 75 

ensued, Athanasius left the church and escaped to the Egyptian 
deserts. 

The following years he sojourned among the hermits and asso- 
ciations of monks, all the while exerting a great influence by his 
reputation and his writings. In Alexandria the Arians were now 
in full control, but their bishop held his position with the greatest 
difficulty. Twice he had to flee from the turbulent city, and finally 
after the death of Constantius, the mob slew him in a riot. By an 
edict of Julian (the Apostate) , Athanasius together with other exiled 
bishops was recalled. 

When, however, he began to labor with great zeal for the de- 
fence of the Christian faith and even gained several heathen for 
Christianity, the Emperor Julian drove him out, and "the enemy 
of the gods, so often exiled by the Emperors", had to go into exile 
for the fourth time. After the death of this Emperor, he was en- 
abled to return from the regions whither he had fled for refuge. 
Under one of the following Emperors, he was again obliged to flee, 
but the last seven years of his life he was allowed to spend quietly 
in Alexandria, where he died in 373. 

The works of Athanasius consist chiefly of polemics against the 
Arians together with several letters of a devotional character. His 
services to the Church consist mainly in his unflinching and con- 
sistent defence of the Nicene Creed and in his victorious struggle 
against Arianism. 

32. The Development of the Doctrine of the two Natures in 
Christ. The doctrine of the divinity of Christ had been 
established at the great Church Councils of Nicaea and 
Constantinople. The latter Council also promulgated 
the doctrine concerning the humanity of Christ, Basing 
his theory on the philosophical trichotomy of man, as 
body, soul, and spirit, bishop Apollinaris of Laodicaea 
had taught that Christ had a human body, and soul, 
but not spirit, in its place stood his divine nature. This 
doctrine was rejected, and in opposition to it, it was 
established that w T hile Christ is true God, he is also true 
and perfect man. 

How are these two natures in Christ united to form 
one personality? In answering this question it was 



76 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

possible according to the tendency of the Antiochian 
School to lay such stress upon the distinction between 
the natures as to destroy the personal unity of Christ ; 
or with the Alexandrian School to emphasize the unity 
so as to lose sight of the distinction between the two 
natures. 

Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, became the 
leader of the Antiochian view. In opposition to the Alex- 
andrian elevation of the Virgin Mary as the mother of 
God, he held that the child to which Mary gave birth 
was only man whom the Son of God (Logos) made his abode 
and instrument. Between the divine and human in Christ 
there was always a positive difference. All the infirmi- 
ties that belonged to him during his natural life, as well 
as his suffering and death belonged only to his human 
nature, not to his divine. With such a theory of the 
person of Christ there was danger of denying the ab- 
solute value of his atonement, and the Church had 
ample grounds for condemning Nestorianism as a 
heresy. This was done at the Third Ecumenical Council, 
called by the Emperor, Theodosius II , at Ephesus in 
431. It is, however, to be regretted that the opponents 
of Nestorius used their victory to persecute the vener- 
able patriarch, so that after enduring great sufferings 
and privations he died in distress. His followers found 
at last (499) a refuge in Persia, where remnants are 
still found, who are called from their church language 
Chaldean or Syrian Christians. 

The Alexandrian view now prevailed. It was further 
developed by Eutyches, an abbot of Constantinople. He 
taught that Christ at his incarnation took up the human 
nature in so close a union with the divine, that he in reality after- 
wards had only one nature, namely the divine. After various 
complications the doctrine of Eutyches was rejected at 



THE DOCTRINE 77 

the Fourth Ecumenical Council, at Chalcedon, in 451. A 
rule formulated by Pope Leo the Great was adopted as 
a correct expression of the doctrine of the Church. This 
was in substance that in the person of Christ there 
are two natures, the divine and the human, united with- 
out confusion or change (against Eutyches), division or 
separation (against Nestorius), the properties of each 
nature being preserved. 

The followers of Eutyches, or as they were now called 
Monophy sites (those holding one nature), continued to 
be strong both in number and influence. In order to 
put a stop to the religious controversy, the civil au- 
thorities attempted, however, without success, to re- 
unite them with the Church. Instead of reuniting, they 
formed a Church of their own. In Egypt and Abyssinia 
there are yet found Monophysites called Coptic Chris- 
tians, also in Armenia, where they are known as Arme- 
nian Christians, and in Syria and Mesopotamia, where 
they are called Jacobites, from the monk Jacob el 
Baradai, who was an indefatigable worker for the main- 
tenance of the sect in those regions. 

An effort to regain the Monophysites for the Church was made 
by the Emperor Heraclius, in 622. He proposed a compromise to 
which he hoped the contending parties would agree, to the effect 
that in the person of Christ there were two natures, but only one 
will. The Monophysites were, however, not satisfied with this con- 
cession, and the representatives of the Church saw in this compro- 
mise an approach toward Monophysitism. The imperial compromise 
failed in its mission to end the controversy, but it brought into 
existence a new faction known as the Monothelites. At the instiga- 
tion of the Roman bishop, Agathos, they were condemned as 
heretical by the Sixth Ecumenical Council, in 680, and under the 
leadership of the Abbot Maro, after whom they were called Maro- 
nites, they formed on Mt. Lebanon a Church of their own. During 
the time of the Crusades they entered into an alliance with the 
Roman Church. 



78 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

33. Development of the Doctrine of Sin and Grace. The 

foregoing doctrinal controversies were confined more 
particularly to the Eastern Church, Only now and then 
had the bishops of Rome interfered to lead the develop- 
ment in the right direction. On the other hand we find 
the controversy about the more practical subjects of 
Sin and Grace agitating the Church in the West. The 
principal champions here were Augustine, bishop of 
Hippo (t 430), and the British monk Pelagius. 

All the preceding church fathers had, indeed, acknowl- 
edged the universality of sin and its connection with 
the fall of Adam, as well as the necessity of divine grace 
for man's salvation. But the doctrinal points regard- 
ing these questions were yet obscure and unsettled. 

At the opening of the fifth century Augustine ap- 
peared. A painful experience of his own inability to 
withstand the evil enabled him to understand the depth 
of man's depravity. As a consequence, he taught that 
man, created in the image of God, was originally good, but that 
he had become corrupted by sin and had lost his original holiness, 
He thus became subject to the wrath of God, death, con- 
demnation, and the dominion of sin, so that he no 
longer possessed the power to will or to do anything good in 
a higher sense. This sinfidness with all its conseqsences is in- 
herited by all men, and cleaves to them from their very birth. No 
man can of himself do the least to save himself from this 
miser}-. But God, who according to his justice must 
punish sin, has of his great love out of the great mass of lost 
humanity chosen a few who shall be saved. With these his 
grace works with irresistible power for their conversion 
and preservation in faith. On all the rest the grace of 
God does not work at all, or at least not in full earnest, 
and they are as a result lost. This is St. Augustine's 
doctrine of predestination. 



THE DOCTRINE 79 

Pelagius was a man of considerable learning and 
moral worth. The asceticism of the cloister was his ideal. 
Any strong temptation to flagrant sins did not beset 
him, and he lacked insight into the depravity of the 
human heart. As a consequence, he had never experi- 
enced his own inability to overcome sin and tempta- 
tion, and he very naturally overestimated the natural 
powers of man. The fall of man into sin he regarded as 
having wrought evil to our first parents, but not to 
their descendants. They are at their birth, like their 
first parents at their creation, devoid both of sin and 
virtue, and have full power both to will and do the good. 
Sin is, indeed, common in the world, but this has its ori- 
gin in bad examples and wicked habits. By his own 
power man can determine to improve and both begin 
and finish his walk in the footsteps of Jesus. The grace 
of God through Jesus Christ our Lord is not at all nec- 
essary, but it is a very great help. Through Christ man 
has received a full revelation of the will of God, and his 
life furnishes the most perfect model for imitation. 

Pelagius began to set forth his view more openly at 
Kome in 410. The following year he crossed over to 
Africa. There Augustine contended with him both with 
voice and pen, with such power that his views were con- 
demned by a synod at Carthage, in 418. He found a 
temporary refuge with Nestorius, the Patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, but his connection w r ith this heretic led to 
the rejection of his views also in the East. This took 
place at the Council in Ephesus, in 431. 

Although Pelagianism had thus been repudiated by 
the Church, the view of Augustine had not received full 
acknowledgement because of its dangerous doctrine of 
predestination. Against the same there arose a faction 
holding an intermediate view, maintaining the freedom 



80 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

of the will and the necessity of the grace of God in 
man's conversion. They were called Semi-Pelagians. 
They talked of orignal sin, but understood it to mean 
only a moral weakness which follows man from birth, so that al- 
though he, indeed, can choose the good, yet is unable to do the same 
of himself, but needs the assistance of divine grace. As a conse- 
quence, the conversion of man takes place through a 
co-operation of the grace of God and the spiritual 
powers of man, which are weakened but not destroyed 
by sin. 

After a controversy lasting more than one hundred 
years Semi-Pelagianism was condemned by the Church 
at a Synod in Orange, France, in 529. Here the Augus- 
tinian view was accepted, however, in a modified form, 
according to which it was held that reprobation was not 
founded in God's will, but in man's opposition to the 
grace of God in his heart. 

Aurelius Augustine was born, 353, in Numidia. His father was a 
pagan and of a violent and passionate temper, which seemed to 
have been inherited by the son. 

His mother, Monica, was an earnest Christian. By patience 
and kindness she won her husband over to the Christian faith 
shortly before his death. In the heart of her son she planted the 
seeds of piety, which after many storms grew and bore fruit. 

His life before his conversion Augustine has portrayed in his 
"confessions" which may, however, be a little too strongly colored. 
His evil desires developed early, and in his younger years he was 
guilty of many serious moral offenses. He admits afterwards that 
during all this time he was unhappy and without peace. 

After the death of his father, he attended the high school at 
Carthage. He devoted himself zealously to the study of rhetoric 
and philosophy, but he found no peace for his soul. A work of 
Cicero, now lost, which he studied, aroused within him an eager 
desire to know the truth. Long did he roam about in his own ways, 
before he found the truth which comes from God and leads to God. 

Sometimes he read the bible, but its style seemed to him too 
simple and artless, its contents too childish. The half-heathen 



THE DOCTRINE 81 

religion of Mani appealed to him so strongly that at the age of 
nineteen he became an adherent and disciple of the Manichaean 
sect. Their poetically fantastic doctrine, which seemed to pene- 
trate deeply into the mysteries of nature attracted him with 
irresistible force. 

During all this time his mother, Monica, never ceased to pray 
for her erring son. When she at one time opened her heart and made 
known her anxieties to a pious bishop who had himself belonged to 
the Manichseans, he comforted her with these words: "Be com- 
posed, a son of so many sighs and tears of a mother can not be 
finally lost." 

After a period of nine years Augustine severed his connection 
with the Manichseans, having in a conversation with one of their 
leading men learned how empty their wisdom in reality was. With- 
out his mother's knowledge he now went to Rome. At this time 
he began to doubt everything and became a skeptic. 

He did not, however, tarry long in Rome, but went to Milan, 
where he was engaged as a teacher of rhetoric, to which work he 
had already applied himself while at Carthage. In Milan he went 
to listen to the sermons of St. Ambrose, probably from curiosity 
and interest in their rhetorical form. After a short time he was 
attracted by the truth they contained. His mother now joined him. 
Glad to see her son freed from the snares of the Manichaeans, she 
expressed the sure hope that she would be spared, till she had seen 
him converted to Christianity. 

But before this took place he had to encounter hard struggles. 
He understood that faith only could save him, but how should he 
come to this faith? This question was the more difficult for him, 
as he demanded a mathematical certainty even in spiritual matters. 
But to break away from his former sinful life and habits was a still 
harder struggle. He experienced within himself the terrible power 
of sin and his own inability to overcome his selfish nature. Having 
for some time studied the Neo-Platonic philosophy, he now began 
to read the bible. The discord in the soul of man as described by 
the Apostle Paul in the 7th chapter of Romans appealed to him 
with special force. In the spiritual struggles of the Apostle, he 
recognized his own. 

One day he received a visit from a friend, who spoke to him 
about the pious hermit Antonius and his self-denial. He felt 
ashamed when he compared his past life with that of such a holy 
man. He hastened out into the garden, threw himself under a tree 

6 



82 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

and cried aloud with tears: "How long wilt thou yet be angry? 
Remember not my sins! Why always to-morrow, and again to- 
morrow? Why not put an end to my shame this very moment?" 
Thereupon he thought he heard a child from an adjoining house 
cry: "Take and read. " This he took as a hint from above, procured 
a copy of the Epistle to the Romans, and found this place : Let us 
walk honestly, as in the day; not in rioting and drunkenness, not 
in chambering and wantonness (Rom. 13: 13). 

A heavenly peace filled his soul as he read. New strength and 
new hope revived within him, and he hastened to his mother to 
relate what had taken place within him. This happened in the 
month of September, 386. 

Augustine sought seclusion and withdrew together with his 
mother and a few friends to a rural home outside of Milan. Here 
he spent some time occupied with the study of the Psalms, with 
literary work, and various agricultural pursuits. Later he returned 
to Milan, where he received baptism at the hands of St. Ambrose, 
at Easter 387. Thence he went to Rome, and, after a short stay, 
repaired to North Africa. During this journey, near Ostia, occurred 
the death of his mother to whose memory he has left such a beauti- 
ful tribute in his ' 'Confessions r '- 

After his return to Africa he led an ascetic life together with 
his associates for a period of three years. Afterwards he became 
presbyter in the neighboring town of Hippo Regius, and, in 396, 
bishop at the same place. Here also, together with his presbyters, 
he led an ascetic life according to a certain prescribed rule (vita 
canonica). Not only within his own congregation did he labor suc- 
cesfully, but his influence was felt in wider circles. 

In his youth he had led a stormy life, as bishop he had many 
bitter controversies with opponents. His last days were saddened 
by the invasion of the cruel Vandals. He died in Hippo in 430, 
during the siege of the city. 

The life of Augustine before his conversion is the more interest- 
ing to us, as there is a close connection between it and his doctrinal 
views. Through bitter experience he had gained his knowledge of 
both sin and grace. 

St. Augustine's writings are very numerous. He wrote polemics 
against the Manichaeans, and against the Pelagians as well as 
against the Semi-Pelagians. Orally and by writing he opposed the 
Donatists, and in the controversy with them he unhappily expressed 



THE DOCTRINE 83 

the thought that violence might even be used as a last resort to 
bring heretics back to the Church. He made use of a biblical pas- 
sage erroneously expounded, "Compel them to come in" (Luke 
14: 23). Thus in time to come the authority of Augustine could be 
adduced in defence of the many persecutions against heretics. 

An apologetical and dogmatical work with a wide scope was 
written by him on The City of God (De Civitate Dei). About 400 
sermons have been preserved. As a bible expositor he is less 
famous, for he knew only a little Greek and Hebrew not at all. 

With good reason has Augustine been called the Teacher of the 
Christian Occident. He was undoubtedly the most versatile of all 
the church fathers and exerted the greatest influence both on his 
cotemporaries and on posterity. While we admire his spiritual 
depth, and mental acumen, we are forced to admit that he advanced 
various false doctrines. 

It is, indeed, remarkable that he is regarded equally great both 
by Catholics and Protestants. He praises on the one hand both 
tradition and the Church most highly and regards the latter even 
in an outward sense as holy. He also allows the priesthood to 
occupy a mediatorial position between God and man. In this respect 
he is an orthodox Catholic. But on the other hand, he presents in 
a more emphatic way than any other teacher before the time of 
Luther the absolute necessity of the grace of God for man's salva- 
tion, and wholly excludes all human merit in this connection. In 
this respect he is a Protestant. His writings were eagerly studied 
by the Reformers, and exerted upon their views a most powerful 
influence. 

d. The Extension of the Church, 

34. Missionary Work during the Migrations. By the Great 
Migration a number of Teutonic tribes forced them- 
selves into Boman territory. All the?e were converted 
to Christianity. The beginning was made by the Visi- 
goths. They were early made acquainted with Christian- 
ity through Christian captives taken in war. A faithful 
laborer among them was Ulfilas, who was ordained as 
their bishop about 340. He gave them an alphabet and 
translated the bible into their tongue. The Christian 



84 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

Goths were persecuted from time to time by their hea- 
then countrymen, but gradually the whole nation ac- 
cepted Christianity (in the Arian form). About this 
time the Visigoths were driven from their homes north 
of the Black Sea by the invading Huns, and were per- 
mitted to cross the Danube and settle in the Koman 
Province of Moesia, about the year 375. Forty years 
later they established their kingdom in Spain. Even 
there they continued in their Arian faith, and accepted 
the orthodox or Catholic faith first at the Synod of 
Toledo, 589. 

From the Visigoths, Christianity in its Arian form 
came to the Ostrogoths, who ruled in Italy from 493 to 
554, and the Vandals, who finally located in North Africa,' 
where they tyrannized over the country between the 
years 429 and 533. Both of these nations remained 
Arians to the time of their overthrow. The Lombards, 
who became masters of Upper Italy in 568, had also re- 
ceived Arian Christianity from the Visigoths. They con- 
tinued Arians for a period of over one hundred years, 
and then they too accepted the Catholic faith. 

The Franks, at the time of their invasion of Gaul, were 
still pagans. Their king Clovis had, however, become ac- 
quainted with Christianity through his queen, Clothilda, 
a Burgundian princess. In a battle with the Alemanni, 
in 496, he was hard pressed and promised with a vow 
to accept the Christian faith, if he should be victorious. 
We know for a fact that shortly after the victory, he re- 
ceived baptism, setting an example that was immedi- 
ately followed by many thousand Franks and after- 
wards by the whole nation. The Franks accepted from 
the beginning the orthodox faith and became in subse- 
quent times the strongest supporters of the Western 
Church. 



THE DOCTRINE 85 

The Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain and began a cruel 
struggle against the Christian Britons, whom they 
drove into the mountains of Wales, while they them- 
selves took possession of the whole of England. The Brit- 
ons remained faithful to Christianity. Their Church was 
of the old type, had no connection with Home, and is 
known as the Celtic Church. 

The Anglo-Saxons did not, however, receive Chris- 
tianity from the Britons because of the hostile feeling 
between the two nations. A Celtic Church was estab- 
lished among them by missionaries from the Convent 
of Iona (par. 35). The mission that emanated from 
Rome was the most successful. Pope Gregory the Great 
sent the abbot Augustine with about forty monks to 
convert the Anglo-Saxons. Through their efforts one 
of the kings of the Heptarchy accepted Christianity, and 
in Canterbury the first archbishopric was established 
with Augustine as the first archbishop, 597. About 60 
years later the whole Anglo-Saxon nation was won over 
to Christianity and entered into full connection with the 
Roman Church. 

The language of Ulfilas' version of the Bible is called the Moeso- 
Gothic. Only fragments remain of this translation. The most 
valuable of these are found in the Codex Argenteus (Silver-book). 
This was discovered in the beginning of the 17th century in the 
Convent of Werden on the Ruhr. Thence it was brought to Prague, 
and, in 1648, it came into the possession of the Swedes as the 
spoils of war. Since 1669 it has been preserved in the Library 
of Uppsala, and is cherished as its greatest treasure. Its name 
is derived from the fact that it is written with silver ink (partly 
gold) and bound in covers of massive silver. 

The Celtic Church had become isolated from the rest of the 
Christian world by the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons, and could, 
therefore, not keep pace with the development of the Church on 
the Continent, but it was at the same time free from the errors of 
the latter. In general, it was distinguished by a greater simplicity and 



86 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

a truer evangelical spirit. Her peculiarities were mainly: worship 
conducted in the -vernacular, a married clergy, and a refusal to 
submit to the Roman hierarchy. To these were added a few others 
of minor importance, which, however, called forth considerable 
controversy, such as the celebration of Easter at another time than 
that of the Church in general, the tonsure of Paul instead of that 
of Peter (par. 23), etc. The Celtic Church was also established in 
Ireland and Scotland. At the beginning of the Middle Ages she 
sent many energetic missionaries to Germany. She was, however, 
unable to maintain her independence and was absorbed by the 
Roman Church in the ninth century. 

35. Missionary Work outside of the Roman Empire. During 
this period the Church did not expand territorially to 
any great extent. In Europe. Christianity was brought 
to Ireland and Scotland, and in Africa to Abyssinia. In 
Asia Christianity was more firmly established in coun- 
tries, where it had been preached before, but not been 
generally accepted, as is Armenia, Persia, and certain 
parts of Arabia. 

St. Patrick became the Apostle of Ireland. From the 
year 430 he labored there with so much energy, and suc- 
cess that, within a short time, the whole island accepted 
Christianity. Here arose numerous schools and con- 
vents, from which many excellent missionaries went out 
to heathen lands. Hence the name, "The Island of 
Saints." 

An Irish abbot, St. Columba (died 597), brought the 
gospel to Scotland. On a low rocky island off the west 
coast of Scotland he founded the monastery of Iona, 
which became an important nursery for the further 
spread of Christianity. 

Abyssinia was Christianized in the fourth century by 
two youths (Aedesius and Frumentius) who had been 
captured while on a voyage of discovery and been 
brought as slaves to 'the Abyssinian court. By their 



THE DOCTRINE 87 

wisdom and winning ways they gained the confidence of 
the king and succeeded in converting him to the faith 
which had given peace to their own hearts. Within a 
short time there arose flourishing Christian churches in 
the whole country and one of these youths, Frumentius, 
was consecrated as their first bishop. Later the Mo- 
nophysite heresy was introduced. It still prevails in the 
Abyssinian Church, which has been in a state of decline 
for a long time. 

36. A Retrospect of the Ancient Era. During the Ancient 

Era the mission of the Church was to labor especially among the 
people of the Roman Empire. During the Period of the Martyrs 
her outward labors were directed towards gathering these peoples 
into her bosom. In her inward development, she aimed in the first 
place to appropriate the rich treasure of divine revelation given 
both in the Old Testament and particularly in the New Testament 
by Christ and his Apostles; and to defend her position both against 
Jews and Pagans. In the second place she endeavored to intro- 
duce the best possible order into her government and cultus and to 
infuse a Christian spirit into the life in the Church as a whole, as 
well as among the individual members and familes. Thus she be- 
came a city on a hill which could not be hid. A select remnant 
sought protection within her walls; the great mass made violent 
attacks upon her, but without success, for she was founded on the 
Rock, Christ. The life in the Church had, however, already begun 
to show a certain false tendency, particularly in the existence of 
an Old Testament legalism and, in consequence, an undue value 
was placed upon certain outward good works. 

During the time of doctrinal development the all-victorious 
power of faith at first maintained itself in the Church. This was, 
indeed, necessary, as Christianity should permeate the whole body 
of the Roman state. To fuse the old Grseco-Roman civilization 
with the Christian culture and present clearly and difinitely to 
human thought the main points of the Christian doctrine was truly 
a work that called forth Herculean efforts. Sadly enough, it soon 
became manifest that the Church lost in depth in the same measure 
as she gained in extent. Dangerous tendencies, early manifested, 
developed by degrees. The government of the Church became more 



88 THE PERIOD OF DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT 

and more hierarchical. Worship was overloaded with ritualism and 
lost much of its edifying character. Zeal for pure doctrine laid 
greater and greater stress upon orthodox expressions of faith while 
faith in the heart and its manifestation in life were neglected. The 
conditions in the Eastern Church grew rapidly worse and matured 
for the punishment that came through the spread of Islam. In the 
West the Great Migration served to chastise the Church and to 
begin her restoration. 



THE MEDIAEVAL ERA. 

(A. D. 600-1517.) 



37. Introduction. At the close of the Ancient Era the Church 
approached a new phase in her development. She had infused her 
life unto the classic nations and had appropriated their culture. It 
now became evident that these nations were no longer equal to the 
task of maintaining the Church. The Christians of the Orient had 
lost themselves in formalism and cant and were a poor defence for 
the Christian faith against advancing Mohammedanism. A remnant 
of the Greek Church maintained itself, but it showed few signs of 
inner life. In the West everything was in a state of dissolution. 
Here the Reman Empire had crumbled to pieces and the Teutonic 
communities formed on its ruins had not yet acquired the necessary 
stability. But Christianity now exhibited its wonderful power. 
The Teutons, indeed, subdued the great Roman Empire, but were 
in their turn conquered by the Church. Those who crossed the 
frontiers and took possession of the Roman provinces had, as a 
rule, already accepted Christianity and were now received in a body 
into the Church. Their kindred outside of the Empire, beyond the 
Rhine and the Danube, were afterwards converted through the 
missionary enterprises of the Church. On the other hand the Slavs 
of Eastern Europe were gathered into the Greek Church. Thus 
the center of the Church was changed from the Graeco-Roman to 
the Teuto-Slavonic nations. • With this change new duties were 
imposed upon the Church, but new forces were also placed at her 
disposal. During this time she underwent many internal changes, 
and assumed that particular form which characterizes her during 
the Middle Ages. 

a. Territorial Changes. 

38. Mohammedanism. At the opening of the Middle 
Ages the Christian Church lost a considerable part of 



90 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

the territory in which she had first planted the stand- 
ard of the Cross. These territories were seized by the 
Saracen conquerors, who established within them the 
religion of their prophet Mohammed — a religion com- 
posed of pagan, Jewish, and Christian elements. 

Mohammed was born in the city of Mecca, about the 
year 571, and appeared as a religious teacher when 
about 40 years of age. "There is no God but Allah, and 
Mohammed is his prophet"' was the fundamental 
doctrine of his creed. The soul of man is immortal; 
eternal bliss awaits the faithful; eternal misery the un- 
believers. No atonement is necessary, for by his own 
good deeds man can gain paradise, where the richest 
sensual pleasures are enjoyed. There are, however, in- 
timations that the righteous "shall see God", and that 
this enjoyment is as much greater than all sensual 
pleasures "as the ocean is greater than the dewdrop.' , 
To secure this bliss the faithful should pray diligently, 
fast often, give alms, and, at least once during life, make 
a pilgrimage to Mecca. But more efficient than all 
these is the battle for the spread of the faith. A drop of 
blood shed in the cause of God is of more avail than two 
months of fasting and prayer, and at the day of judg- 
ment the wounds of the faithful shall be resplendent as 
vermilion and odoriferous as musk. God has before 
hand determined the destiny of men. To this decree 
man must submit without a murmur (Fatalism). One 
of the deepest shadows in the Mohammedan religion is 
the degradation in which it places woman. She is a 
being far inferior to man and is only his servant. Po- 
lygamy was permitted. The religion is known as Islam, 
which means submission to God. It is contained in the 
Koran, which is the sacred book of the Mohammedans, 
and which was published after the death of the prophet. 



TERRITORIAL CHANGES 91 

Most of Mohammed's immediate kinsmen believed 
him to be a chosen messenger of God, but his more re- 
mote relatives and tribesmen would not accept his mes- 
sage, and began to persecute him, and even to threaten 
his life, when he attacked their old idolatrous worship. 
He was at length compelled to flee for his life. With 
great difficulty he escaped to the neighboring city of 
Medina, in the year 622. This event is known as the 
Hegira, and from it the Mohammedans reckon time to 
this day. The inhabitants of Medina received his doc- 
trine with great enthusiasm, and now began the "holy 
war' ' for the spread of Islam. In this Mohammed was 
eminently successful, and at the time of his death, in 
632, he had reduced the whole Arabian Peninsula. 

Under the successors of Mohammed, the Caliphs, the 
Arabs extended their dominion far beyond the bounda- 
ries of their native land. Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Per- 
sia, Northern Africa, and Spain fell in succession into 
their hands. From Spain they crossed the Pyrenees and 
devastated the land of the Franks. But the brilliant 
victory of Charles Mart el at Tours, in 732, put a stop 
to their further progress westward. Their power soon 
began to decline even in Spain, and, in 1492, their last 
possession there fell into the hands of the Christians. 
But in the East they continued to extend their domin- 
ion. The Crusades put only a temporary check to their 
victories. In the 14th century, they crossed from Asia 
Minor to Europe and in the following they overthrew 
the Roman Empire in the East by the capture of Con- 
stantinople (1453). For a long time afterwards the 
Mohammedan power continued to be a menace to all 
Christendom. 

In the conquered countries, especially in Asia, a few 
Christian churches continued to exist, notwithstanding 



92 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

the oppression to which they were subjected from time 
to time. The great mass of the people were easily 
enough induced to accept the religion of the conquerors. 
Thus in Northern Africa nearly every trace of Chris- 
tianity was soon swept away. 

The Mohammedans have many religious customs resembling 
those of the Jews. Among these may be mentioned certain food 
regulations, and the rite of circumcision, which, however, was in 
vogue among the Arabs before the time of Mohammed. One month 
of the year — Ramadan — is set apart for fasting, during which 
time no one is allowed to taste either meat or drink from the ris- 
ing to the setting of the sun. The use of wine is prohibited. Mo- 
nasticism was introduced one hundred years after the rise of Islam. 

The ceremonies of Islam are extremely simple. The worship in 
the mosques is led by an intercessor, called imam. Friday is the 
holiest day of the week, but is not kept as a sabbath. The pious 
Mohammedan says prayer five times a day with his face turned to- 
ward Mecca. The hours for prayer are publicly announced from 
high towers, minarets, built around the mosques. In Mecca is pre- 
served the most sacred shrine of the Mohammedans, the Caaba, 
said to have come down from heaven. 

The Koran was gathered by the father-in-law and successor of 
Mohammed, Abu Bekr. Its contents indicate an acquintance with 
both the Old and the New Testament, and are composed of religious, 
moral, and legal precepts. In size the Koran corresponds to the 
New Testament and is divided into 114 chapters. While its moral 
tone rises above that of pagan religions, it falls far below the 
Christian standard. 

The Caliph was the highest religious and civil authority of the 
Mohammedans. In the beginning of the Middle Ages the Moham- 
medan countries reached a high point in both spiritual and material 
progress, and from them Christian Europe received many valuable 
seeds of culture. Mohammedan civilization, however, soon began 
to wane; and it has ever since been in a state of retrogression. 

39. Founding of the Church in Germany. While the Church 
thus lost both in the South and the East, she gained 
ground among the Teutons and the Slavs. Quite early 
there arose Christian churches in Germany in places 



TERRITORIAL CHANGES 93 

where Roman camps had been located, such as, Cologne, 
Treves, etc. But a more general spread of Christianity 
was effected by missionaries from the British Isles. One 
of the most distinguished of these heroes of faith was 
the indefatigable laborer, Willibrord, the Apostle of the 
Frisians (t 738). His zealous work was afterwards con- 
tinued by Winfrid, better known as St. Boniface, the 
Apostle of Germany. He preached first in Friesland, and 
afterwards in Central Germany, where he labored during 
a whole generation for the conversion of the Germans 
and the regulation of churches and convents, he 
thought that he could most firmly establish Christianity 
within this great territory by placing the different 
churches under the jurisdiction of the papal see. He was 
made archbishop and primate of Germany by the Pope, 
and established his archiepiscopal seat at Mainz. In his 
old age he made a missionary journey to the Frisians, 
where he died a martyr, about the year 754. 

Through the victorious arms of Charlemagne the 
Church was extended and firmly established among the 
German tribes by the opening of the ninth century. 

Boniface exerted the greatest influence on the Church in the 
West. He labored as a zealous and devoted missionary and an 
energetic ecclesiastical reformer. The power of the Pope was not 
yet fully established. It looked as if Christendom should fall asun- 
der into as many ecclesiastical organizations as there were nations. 
This would not have been advantageous to the Church in such coun- 
tries as were yet half pagan. For there was no ecclesiastical 
authority that could assert itself against increasing evils or the 
growing desire of the civil authorities to make the Church sub- 
servient to their interests. With remarkable penetration, Boniface 
perceived that a central church authority was the only thing that 
could defend the interests of the Church and religion against their 
many adversaries, and he made it his object to strengthen the ties 
between the Papacy and the Germanic nations. In Germany this 
was done with the introduction of Christianity. But even in France, 



94 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

Boniface succeeded in carrying out his plans, although not before 
Charles Martel had died and his sons had succeeded to his power. 
At several Church councils reformatory measures were enacted. 
The Pope was acknowledged as the supreme head of the whole 
Frankish Church, the canon law was enforced, and the provincial 
synods were reestablished. Thus there was a firm foundation laid 
for the power both of the Church and the Papacy, especially as 
these regulations, owing to the rapid growth of the Frankish power, 
became patterns for the whole of Western Europe. 

40. The Establishment of the Church among the Scandi- 
navian Nations. Not before the ninth century did any 
Christian missionary visit the northern countries. Fear 
of the plundering vikings and the universal enthusiasm 
for the conversion of the heathen led the Christian 
people to make earnest efforts, with the power of the 
gospel, to subdue the wild Northmen, whom no power 
of arms could overcome. 

The first man that preached the gospel in the North 
was the brave and pious St. Ansgar, who has therefore 
been called the "Apostle of the North." Born in North- 
ern France, he entered early in life the renowned monas- 
tery of Corbie, in Picardie, where he received his educa- 
tion. Later on he moved to New Corbie, a cloister in 
Westphalia. He burnt with a desire to proclaim the 
gospel of Christ and to suffer and die for the cause. His 
wish was soon gratified, when he was sent by the Em- 
peror, Louis the Pious of France, to preach the gospel in 
Denmark. Full of zeal he began his work in this country 
and founded a mission station near the city of Schles- 
wig. His labors were, however, soon interrupted by in- 
ternal civil disorders. Thereupon he accepted the call 
of the Emperor to repair to Sweden. Accompanied by 
a friend he arrived after many hardships at Birka, the 
principal mercantile center of the Swedes (about 830). 
He was well received by the Swedish king Bjorn, and 



TERRITORIAL CHANGES 



95 



secured permission from him to preach Christianity 
freely in the land. With undaunted courage and fiery 
zeal he preached the Christian faith and converted 
many. Even one of the king's chiefs, Herigar, accepted 
baptism and built On his possessions the first Christian 
chapel in the North. 

After his return to Germany Ansgar was appointed 
archbishop, first in 
Hamburg, and when 
this city was de- 
stroyed by vikings, 
in Bremen. From 
this place Ansgar 
continued to super- 
intend the mission- 
ary work in the 
Northern countries. 
When the priests he 
had left . at Birka 
were driven away 
by a tumult of the 
heathen, he visited 
this city the second 
time about 850. By 
his kindness and 
manly courage, he 

succeeded in pacifying the heathen, and the udalmen (free 
farmers) decided at the thing (court meeting) that Chris- 
tianity should continue to be preached in the land. After 
having thus happily settled the matter he returned to 
Bremen and there labored untiringly for the conversion 
of the North until his death in 865. 

At first Christianity made very slow headway in the 
countries of the far North. Through influences from 




St. Ansgar. 



96 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 

Germany and England the Christian Church gained a 
final victory in Denmark during the reign of Canute the 
Great (1014 — 1035). Norway, which stood in close con- 
nection with the British Isles, received Christianity from 
them. Two Norwegian kings, Olaf Tryggvesson and 
Olaf Haraldsson (the Saint), labored especially for the 
introduction of the Christian faith among their subjects. 
They did not disdain to use compulsion to gain their 
purpose. Because of his cruelties Olaf Haraldsson 
brought upon himself the hatred and vengeance of his 
heathen subjects, and he was obliged to flee from the 
land. When he returned to regain his kingdom by force 
of arms, he fell in the battle of Stiklestad, A. D. 1030. 
After his death public opinion suddenly changed. The 
people abandoned their idolatry and accepted Chris- 
tianity. King Olaf was looked upon as a martyr to 
his faith and was worshiped as the patron Saint of 
Norway. 

In Sweden paganism was the most stubborn. It was 
not before the beginning of the eleventh century that 
Christianity made rapid progress, especially through 
some English missionaries. At this time St. Sigfrid la- 
bored with zeal and success in Yestergotland and Sma- 
land. He may rightly be called the second Apostle of 
Sweden. Olof Lapking was baptized by him in 1007 
and became the first Christian king of Sweden. Before 
long Christianity was spread also in Gothland (Goth- 
land). During the reign of the Stenkil dynasty several 
Christian teachers labored with success in northern Swe- 
den. By the victory of Inge the Elder over Blotsven 
(1080) Christianity triumphed in this part of the coun- 
try also ; and in the age of Erik the Saint there were 
only a few heathen scattered here and there in the more 
remote provinces. 



TERRITORIAL CHANGES 



97 



The archbishop of Bremen had jurisdiction over the 
Church in the North until 1104, when the bishop of 
Lund was appointed by the Pope as archbishop of these 
parts. Thus the North became a separate ecclesiastical 
province which was afterwards divided into three. A 
papal legate, Nicholas of Albano, was sent to accomplish 
this division. He consecrated a separate archbishop 




The Cathedral at Lund. 



for Norway with his seat at Trondhjem, in 1152. The 
same year he held a Church council, in Linkoping, Swe- 
den. Here the Swedes agreed like the other nations to 
pay an annual fee to the Pope (Peter-pence). But no 
archbishop could be appointed this time because of the 
dissension existing between the Sveas and the Goths. 
And it was not before the year 1164, that Sweden ob- 

7 



y© THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

tained an archbishop in the person of Stephen, a monk 
from Alvastra, with his seat at Uppsala. 

By degrees the Church in Sweden obtained all the 
privileges that were enjoyed in other countries (par. 
22). Thus for instance it was established by a royal 
charter in 1200 that ecclesiastics should not be subject 
to the jurisdiction of temporal courts, but be amenable 
only to ecclesiastical tribunals in all civil and criminal 




The Cathedral, at Uppsala. 



cases. In the same charter we also find the first mention, 
in Sweden, of the privileges of ecclesiastical tenures, i. e. 
freedom of all ecclesiastical estates from taxes and im- 
posts. At the same time the paying of tithes became 
general in Sweden. They are usually divided among the 
bishop, the parish priest, the parish church, and the 
poor. 

In the year 1248 Sweden was a second time visited 
by a papal legate, William of Sabina. He summoned 



TERRITORIAL CHANGES 99 

the principal men, both lay and clerical, to a Church 
council, in Skaninge. Celibacy was here enjoined upon 
the Swedish clergy. The bishops were ordered to make 
a faithful study of the Canon Law,so that it would gradu- 
ally secure recognition in the country. A supplement to 
these resolutions ordered by the Pope regulated that a 
Cathedral Chapter should be instituted, that the election of bishops 
should be left to this body, and that ecclesiastics were prohibited 
from swearing allegiance to the secular authority. 

By these ordinances the government of the Church 
in Sweden was completed and all its regulations modeled 
after the rest of Catholic Christendom. 

41. The establishment of the Church among the other 
European Nations. Among the Slavonic nations we find 
especially Greek missionaries. Most distinguished a- 
mong them are the two noble brothers, Cyrillus and 
Methodius. They preached the Christian faith in Mora- 
via and Bohemia, about 860 (previous to this probably 
also in Bulgaria). From Bohemia Christianity came to 
Poland. Even Hungary received the message from the 
Greek Church. Nevertheless all these countries, except 
Bulgaria, united themselves with the papal see. Russia, 
on the other hand, became a permanent acquisition of 
the Greek Church. Vladimir the Great (f 1015), was 
the first Russian autocrat to receive baptism. His peo- 
ple were compelled at the same time to exchange their 
heathen worship for the Greek faith. 

The countries on the eastern and southern shores of 
the Baltic were slow in accepting Christianity. Finland 
was compelled by military force to acknowledge both 
the Swedish rule and the Roman faith. Even in the rest 
of these countries, the missionary work was carried on 
by both sword and preaching. In this way Christianity 
was introduced into Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland 



100 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 

by the order of the Brothers of the Sword (organized in 
1202), into Prussia by the Teutonic knights. Pom- 
merania was Christianized by the dukes of Poland, and 
the Wends by the dukes of Saxony. When finally Li- 
thuania had accepted Christianity (about 1386), it 
may be said that paganism was practically driven out 
of Europe. 

b. Constitution and Cult us. 

42. The Rise of Papacy. During the previous era the 
bishop of Rome had unquestionably occupied the front 
rank among all Christian bishops. He aimed even then 
at the supremacy over the whole Church. During the 
first part of the Middle Ages his efforts in this direction 
were crowned with signal success. Various conditions 
aided in securing this result. 1) In order to preserve its 
outward unity the Christian world felt the need of one, 
common, visible head, and where could such a one be 
found, if not in the bishop of Rome? Rome had of old 
been the capital of the world; Rome contained the 
graves of the two chief Apostles. According to tra- 
dition the Apostle Peter was the first bishop there ; and 
the primacy he w r as supposed to have held in the circle 
of the Apostles would naturally pass to all his succes- 
sors in office. 2) The bishops of Rome had, in general, 
been able and efficient leaders, and enjoyed great respect 
for their orthodoxy. 3) Many of the archbishops of the 
West were, indeed, unwilling to acknowledge the suprem- 
acy of the Pope, but on the other hand the bishops, 
priests, and monks vied with each other to place them- 
selves directly under the jurisdiction of the Roman see 
in order to become more independent of their local 
superiors, archbishops and bishops. This helped to 
establish the opinion that all spiritual power and 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 



101 



authority emanated from the Pope. 4) As the mission- 
aries among the Teutonic tribes were either sent out by 
the Pope or aided by him they inculcated in these peo- 
ples the deepest reverence for the Pope, as one commis- 
sioned by God himself as the head of the Church and the 




Pope, Cardinals, and Bishops in Robes of Office At the 
Crowning of An Emperor. 



vicegerent of Christ on earth. 5) The Pseudo-Isidorian 
decretals served to give legality to the power of the 
Pope. These decretals were mainly a collection of 
decisions in ecclesiastical jurisprudence which were 
alleged to have emanated from the early Popes and 



102 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 

famous synods. The collection was claimed to have 
been made by a renowned Spanish bishop Isidore of Se- 
ville (f 636), but thej^ are now known to be forgeries, 
hence, the name Pseud o-Isidorian(False-Isidorian). The 
first one to appeal to these decretals in support of his 
authority was the energetic Pope Nicholas I. (858-867). 
43. Schism between the Roman and the Greek Church. 
There was but one bishop who could dispute these pre- 
tensions of the Pope, the patriarch of Constantinople. 
To him the Christians of the East were wont to turn for 
leadership in proportion as his city grew in importance, 
and the Western Church in doctrine and practice sepa- 
rated more and more from the Eastern, which was fast 
becoming stagnant. A strained relation soon arose 
between the two church dignitaries. Both strove for the 
first position in the Church. They contended for the pos- 
session of certain countries that had received Christiani- 
ty through Greek missionaries, but had afterwards en- 
tered into relations with Rome. Finally doctrinal issues 
were pushed into the forefront. Among these that of 
the procession of the Holy Ghost was the most impor- 
tant. To the decision of the Second Ecumenical Council 
(Constantinople, 381) that "the Holy Ghost proceeds 
from the Father", two synods of the West, had upon 
the authority of St. Augustine, added "and the Son" 
(filioque). The Eastern Church condemned this action, 
and made it an occasion for accusing the Western 
Church of heresy. When this accusation was repeated 
at a later date by a patriarch of the Greek Church, 
Michael Cerularius, the Pope, Leo IX., sent ambassa- 
dors to Constantinople to negotiate concerning the 
matter. Nothing could be accomplished, and the ambas- 
sadors deposited on the altar of St. Sophia a papal bull, 
excommunicating Michael and his adherents. The 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 



103 



patriarch answered by a similar anathema, and thus 
the rupture between the two Churches was completed in 
1054. Later attempts (1273 and 1438) to reunite them 
had no lasting results. 

44. Papacy and the Church Offices. The independence of 
the higher church 
officers was con- 
siderably circum- 
scribed by the 
papal power. An 
archbishop was 
not allowed to 
enter upon the 
discharge of his 
duties before he 
had obtained the 
pallium at Rome 
and given his 
oath of allegiance 
to the Pope. In 
the official func- 
tions of the arch- 
bishops and bish- 
ops the Pope 
interfered, when- 
ever it pleased 
him, either per- 
sonally or through his lagates sent to the different 
countries with full power to act in his behalf. 

To promote the advancement of the clergy in knowl- 
edge and piety bishop Chrodegang of Metz (about 760) 
had established a. rule that the priests who officiated at 
the same cathedral should like the monks live together 
and devote themselves to study and devotional exer- 




Bishop (St. Augustine). 



104 THE MEDLEVAL ERA 

cises according to a certain rule (Canon, Canonici). Some 
of these priests were to impart instruction to the young 
men who intended to devote themselves to the services 
of the Church. In this way the Cathedral Schools arose. 
Chrodegang's rule soon became general throughout 
the West. The original purpose was, indeed, abandoned 
after a century, yet the institution had a lasting in- 
fluence since in it the Cathedral Chapter had its origin. 
The Chapter became an advisory body to the bishop 
and slowly acquired great influence in the government 
of the diocese, and at the Fourth Lateran Synod, in 
1215, the power of electing the bishop was laid in its 
hands. 

The Pallium (see illustration, p. 118) is a scarf of white wool, 
about three inches wide, worn over the shoulders, with one band 
in front and one on the back reaching down to the knees, orna- 
mented with purple crosses, embroidered or woven into it. It is 
made by the nuns of the convent of St. Agnes in Rome of wool 
from lambs specially consecrated for that purpose. Each new pal- 
lium must lie during the night before St. Peter's and Paul's day 
(June 29) over the graves of the Apostles in St. Peter's Church at 
Rome. No archbishop is allowed to officiate at any important 
ecclesiastical function without wearing the pallium. This ornament 
is not handed down to the successor in office, but is buried with 
the owner. Each new archbishop must secure the pallium from 
Rome, and for this badge of office large sums of money were paid 
into the papal treasury during the Middle Ages. 

The name, Cathedral Chapter, arose from the circumstance that 
the members met, at first daily, in the church in which the bishop 
had his chair, cathedra, and there together read a chapter of the 
Bible or the Canon Law. 

45. The Papacy and the Temporal Power to the Time of 
Gregory VII. Upon the fall of the Ostrogothic kingdom, 
the Emperor in the East became ruler of Italy and ex 
officio Lord Protector of the Eoman Church. He was, 
however, too weak to defend the Church against her 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 105 

outward enemies, but showed a great desire to meddle 
unduly in her internal affairs. On this account the 
Popes began to look around for another sovereign that 
would give the Church greater liberty and at the same 
time afford a stronger defence. They found such a one 
among the Franks. Here St. Boniface had rearranged 
the affairs of the Church and placed her in the closest re- 
lation to the papal see. Shortly afterwards Charles Mar- 
tel's son, Pippin le Bref, Mayor of the Palace, raised 
himself to the Merovingian throne. To this measure the 
Pope had given his consent and thereby gained the 
favor of the new king. It was not long before Pippin 
had a chance to show his gratitude. The Lombards'in- 
vaded the possessions of the Greek (or Eastern) Emper- 
or in Italy, siezed the Exarchate of Ravenna and 
threatened Rome. The Pope turned for help to the 
king of the Franks. Pippin came, reduced the Lom- 
bards, and compelled them to relinquish their conquests. 
Of these he gave the Exarchate to the Pope, and thus 
laid the foundation of the Church States, and the tem- 
poral power of the Popes. 

The son of Pippin, Charlemagne, extended and rati- 
fied the bequest of his father. In return for services thus 
rendered, the Pope afterwards placed the crown of the 
Roman Empire upon the head of Charlemagne, on 
Christmas Day, A. D. 800. The relation between the 
Emperor and the Pope was thus defined, that the Pope 
by divine authority bestowed the highest power of 
Christendom upon the Emperor, and that the latter ac- 
cepted the charge to be the highest protector and sover- 
eign of the Church and the Pope. 

Charlemagne exercised his protectorate over the 
Church with a strong hand, but for the good of the 
Church. He adopted decisive measures for raising the 



106 ' THE MEDLEVAL ERA 

standard of learning and morality among the clergy. 
He favored the cathedral schools, established other 
higher schools of learning, and took a personal interest 
in general education. He was an ardent supporter of 
the missionary work among the pagans, and furnished 
conquered lands with Christian teachers, who were to 
instruct and educate the new converts in the Christian 
faith, which in many cases had been forced upon them 
by the sword. 

The weak and effenimate successors of Charlemagne 
were not able in a like measure to maintain their sover- 
eignity over the papal see. On the other hand the Pope 
fell into a shameful dependence on a number of Italian 
families, who bestowed the papal office upon most un- 
worthy persons. Out of this degradation, which lasted 
during the tenth and part of the eleventh century, the 
papal office was raised from time to time by powerful 
German Emperors, who caused worthy men to be ap- 
pointed to this high office. But even from this direction 
a danger threatened. Their influence in appointing 
Popes was wholesome only as far as they themselves 
had the good of the Church at heart, which of course 
was not always the case. 

46. The Papacy at the Height of its Power. Several pious 
men, zelous for the welfare of the Church, labored in the 
mean time to raise her from her degradation. Among 
these the monk Hildebrand was the most prominent. 
His high aim he hoped to gain by liberating, as far as pos- 
sible, the papal chair and the Church from all dependence on 
the temporal power. He soon found an opportunity to put 
his plan into execution. In 1048 he accompanied Pope 
Leo IX. to Eome, and remained for 25 years the trusted 
and influential counselor of the Popes. During this 
time he caused the rule to be established that the election 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 107 

of the Pope should be vested in a College of Cardinals, consisting 
of the chief ecclesiastics in the diocese of Rome, to the 
exclusion of the common people and the nobles. By this 
measure he calculated not only to free the papal office 
from its dependence upon the Italian nobles, but also 
to restrict the Emperor's influence upon the election of 
the Pope. He of course expected that the College of 
Cardinals would be less susceptible to improper influ- 
ences than the former electoral corporation. 

Finally, in 1073, Hildebrand was elevated to the 
papal chair as Gregory VII. Now he could more speedily 
carry out his favorite ideas. In his efforts he was 
prompted by exaggerated notions of the papal preroga- 
tive. "As the Pope is Christ's vicegerent on earth, he 
exercises suzerainty over all kingdoms of the world, and 
whosoever will not yield to his command sins against 
God himself. The temporal princes are only satellites 
who borrow their light from the Pope, the true sun." 
Such principles he had the courage openly to avow, and 
he never scrupled at using the most energetic measures 
for carrying them into effect. 

The two principal means by which he sought to se- 
cure a greater independence of the Church as against 
the temporal princes were the Law of Celibacy and the 
Law against Lay Investiture of Ecclesiastics. 

Already during the previous eras there were heard 
voices against a married clergy. Public opinion held 
the unmarried state to be holier and more worthy of a 
priest. Aided by such sentiments Gregory VII. laid 
down a rule that all the clergy should live a celibate life 
(3 074). This law was carried into effect with the ut- 
most severity. Subsequent history has shown that it 
was not conducive to morality. But it served to sever 
the priests from those social and civil relations to which 



108 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 

the cares of a family would have bound them. By this rule 
the clergy were farther separated from the common 
people than ever before, and their persons and posses- 
sions were more fully under the control of the Church. 

In the course of time the churches and convents be- 
came owners of great estates and their masters, the 
archbishops, bishops, and abbots, great feudal lords, 
who held civil and military sway over large territories. 
During feudal times all lands were considered as belong- 
ing to the crown, and, hence, the kings held that ecclesi- 
astical holders should be regarded as other vassals and 
be bound to the same duties and subject to the same 
rules. In accordance with this theory the kings were 
accustomed to appoint the Church dignitaries, invest 
them with authority over their holdings by delivering 
to them the insignia of their office, the ring and staff. 
But the influence of the rulers became a serious men- 
ace to the Church. It happened frequently that they 
gave away ecclesiastical offices as favors, or, still worse, 
sold them for money to the highest bidder (Simony, 
Acts 8: 18—20). Hence, it often happened that the holy 
offices were held by men wholly incompetent and un- 
worthy. With such men in the higher church offices, it 
is not surprising that the lower clergy sank deeper and 
deeper into ignorance and vice. To remedy the evils of 
Simony Gregory ordered (1075) that the clergy should not 
accept an ecclesiastical office from a layman, and that no layman 
had the right to grant investiture to the clergy. 

The penalty for violation on the part of the clergy was deposi- 
tion from office, for the laymen the ban of the Church. 

This rule meant nothing less than the complete sur- 
render on the part of the rulers of their suzerainty over 
the possessions of the Church. That they would do this 
without a protest was not to be expected, as they would 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 109 

by this rule lose all control over large portions of their 
kingdoms as well as the revenues from the same. Hence, 
there arose between them and the Pope a bitter feud 
called the Investiture Contest. This was carried on with 
varying fortune mainly between the Pope and the Ger- 
man Emperor. For a while it seemed as if the Pope 
would succumb, and Gregory VII. had to flee from Rome 
to Salerno in the province of Naples. There he died in 
1085. His last words were: "I have loved righteousness 
and hated iniquity, therefore I die in exile." 

The contest continued after his death. The Pope 
found a strong support in the mighty movement known 
as the Crusades of which he was the leading spirit. The 
Emperor was finally compelled to make concessions, 
and, in 1122, the long contest was ended by the Concor- 
dat of Worms, by which it was agreed that a prelate 
should after free canonical election receive the symbols 
of his spiritual jurisdiction, the ring and staff, from the 
Pope, and the investiture of his temporal holdings from 
the Emperor by the touch of a scepter. The contest was 
settled in a similar manner in other countries where it- 
had arisen. 

The struggle between the Pope and the German Em- 
peror was, however, not at an end. The great question 
was which of the two should have the greatest power in 
the West. In consequence of the Crusades and the ven- 
eration of the common people for the head of the 
Church the Pope gained one advantage after another 
over the renowned Emperors of the Hohenstaufen fami- 
ly. Papacy reached its highest power under Innocent III 
(1198—1216). This distinguished Pope resembled in 
many respects Gregory VII. There was the same brill- 
iant genius, the same insatiable thirst for glory and 
power, the same indomitable will, the same purity in 



110 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 

morals. Of the prerogatives of the Pope he entertained 
the most exaggerated views. "The princes", said he, "rule 
over a single kingdom or nation, the Pope over the 
whole earth." The ivhole Christian ivorld should constitute a 
single theocracy, ivhose princes and people should have the Pope as 
leader and supreme arbitrator not only in spiritual but also in 
temporal affairs. The conditions of the times were so favor- 
able and the superiority of Innocent so great that he 
could actually enforce these demands. Kings like vassals 
received crowns from him, and at his command they 
placed them at his feet. The regard for Innocent was 
not a little heightened by his becoming a powerful tem- 
poral ruler. He materially enlarged the papal states 
and freed them and the city of Home from the suzerainty 
of the Emperor. 

The year before his death he summoned the repre- 
sentatives of the Church to the Fourth Lateran Synod, 
in 1215. Never before had such a brilliant church as- 
sembly convened. Even the patriarchs of the East took 
part, either personally or by representatives. All pres- 
ent yielded submissively to the mighty church poten- 
tate, who dictated a number of decisions of such a 
decisive nature that this synod has appropriately been 
designated as the capstone of the papal structure. 

The successors of Innocent continued the contest 
with the Emperor, and did not rest until the last of the 
Hohenstaufens had laid his head upon the block. But 
though papacy had triumphed in this contest, and suc- 
ceeded for awhile in maintaining its influence, yet there 
were various signs indicating that its power was 
declining. 

Gregory VII. and Henry IV. Hildebrand was born of poor parents, 
was educated in Rome, and afterwards became a monk at Clugny. 
From that place he accompanied Leo IX. back to Rome and was 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 111 

made a cardinal. He gradually rose to power and influence in 
church affairs, and from the year 1058, he was the ruling spirit. 
Possessed of an indomitable will, trained in the hard school of 
poverty and the convent, and severely strict to himself and others, 
he exerted a powerful influence upon his surroundings. 

His opponent Henry IV., king of Germany, was a man of an 
entirely different mould. He lost his father early in life, and at the 
age of twelve he was separated from his mother. He then fell 
under the baneful influence of Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen, 
who is reported to have said to him on one occasion, "Do whatever 
pleaseth thee, only see that in the moment of death thou hast the 
true faith." As Henry was by nature inclined to pleasure and 
self-will, and was early invested with supreme power, it was most 
natural that he should follow the evil advice of his teacher. The 
result was that, lacking . stability of character, he was by turns 
both bold and defiant and spiritless and submissive. 

Even at the time of the election of Hildebrand as Gregory VII. , 
there existed a strained relation between him and the German king. 
Henry IV retained at his court several councilors who had been ex- 
communicated by Gregory's predecessors. There were also other 
reasons for mutual dissatisfaction. Toward the end of the year 
1075 there arrived at Rome messengers from the Saxon princes who 
accused the king of a scandalous life. The Pope then sent ambas- 
sadors to Henry to investigate the rumors, and at the same time 
uttered threats to some of the courtiers against their sovereign. 
All this irritated Henry and he took the ill-advised step of causing 
a decree of deposition against Gregory to be passed by a synod of 
German bishops convened at Worms, in January 1076. The letter 
sent to Rome to convey this information began thus: "Henry, king 
by the grace of God, to Hildebrand, who is no longer Pope, but a 
false monk." 

This letter reached its destination during the following Lent 
while Gregory was engaged in the solemn sessions of a synod, which 
he had convened. With perfect composure he caused the letter to 
be openly read before the synod, whose members all raised a cry 
of indignation. A sentence of excommunication was fulminated 
against Henry and all participants in his action. The bull was 
drawn up in the form of a prayer to the Apostle Peter, of which 
the following is an excerpt: 

"St. Peter", it began, "Prince of the Aposles, turn, we entreat 
thee, thine ear to us and hear me, thy servant. Thou art my 



112 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 

witness, and Thou, the Mother of God, my Sovereign, and St. 
Paul, thy brother, and all saints, that the holy Roman Church has 
against my will placed me at its helm, and, therefore, I believe 
that it pleaseth thee that the Christian people entrusted to my 
care should obey me. With this assurance, and for the honor and 
protection of thy Church, I, by the power of Almighty God, Father, 
Son, and Holy Spirit, and by thy authority and office, do deprive 
King Henry, son of Emperor Henry, who with unheard-of insolence 
has set himself up against thy Church, of the sovereignty over the 
German and Italian kingdoms, and absolve all Christians from their 
oath of allegiance which they have given or yet may give him. And 
in thy stead I bind him with the bonds of anathema and exclude 
him thus from the Church that all people may know and understand 
that thou art Peter, and that the Son of the living God has built 
his Church upon this rock, and that the gates of hell shall not pre- 
vail against her." 

Gregory thus dared not only to excommunicate Henry, but also 
to declare him deposed from his kingdom. This was an unprece- 
dented and truly presumptuous measure. But the conditions of the 
times favored the bold pontiff. Henry had many enemies in his 
own kingdom, and several German princes availed themselves of 
the opportunity to humiliate the king. They determined that Hen- 
ry's case should be tried at a great national diet in Augsburg, and 
the Pope was summoned to officiate as judge. The assembly was 
called to convene February 2, 1077. 

With evident satisfaction Gregory accepted this responsibility 
and started on his journey to Augsburg near the end of the year 
1076. When he arrived at the river Po, he learned to his dismay 
that Henry was already in Italy. He hastily sought refuge in the 
strong castle of Canossa, which belonged to his disciple, the noble 
and virtuous countess Mathilda, who ruled over a large part of 
northern Italy. 

But this time Henry came not as an enemy, but as a penitent 
refugee. He would not appear in Augsburg under accusation, and 
was anxious to have the ban removed at any price. In midwinter, 
shortly before Christmas, he started from Spires, and as the passes 
leading to Italy were held by his enemies, he had to take the long 
and difficult way over Mt. Cenis. The road was almost impass- 
able. The queen and her maids had to be dragged over the worst 
places on hides of animals. 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 113 

He finally arrived at Canossa. Gregory, however, refused to 
receive him at first, and declared that he would treat with him at 
Augsburg. But upon the intercession of countess Mathilda and 
many others, he at last yielded and granted absolution to the peni- 
tent king, but on hard conditions. For three days, from morning 
till night, in the midst of winter, Henry stood with bare feet, and 
in the garb of a penitent in the courtyard of the castle. At last, 
on the fourth day, he was admitted, and as he threw himself sob- 
bing at the feet of the pontiff, even Gregory was deeply moved and 
burst into tears like all others present. He advanced to the penitent 
king, raised him up, and gave him absolution. He then took him 
to the church, prayed for him, kissed him, and celebrated mass. 
Then the Pope took a consecrated wafer and broke it into two 
halves. "I know", said he, "that many accuse me of having ob- 
tained my office through simony. God is my witness that this is 
false. If I am guilty, then may God punish me by a sudden death." 
With this he consumed the one half of the wafer and gave the 
other to Henry with the exhortation to consume it and thus prove 
his innocence. But Henry declined. 

One stipulation was that Henry should not exercise the func- 
tions of government until his case had been further investigated. 
Soon the hostility between Gregory and Henry broke out anew, and 
Henry was excommunicated. Even on his death-bed Gregory 
refused to withdraw this excommunication. 

37. The Decline of Papacy. There were especially two 
circumstances, both results of the Crusades, that helped 
to undermine the power of the Pope. One was higher 
education and more liberal views even in spiritual things 
which now began to spread ; the other was the increase in 
the power of the king as against that of his vassals. 

The last one in the line of the great Popes of the 
Middle Ages was Boniface VIII. (1294—1303). He was 
drawn into a bitter controversy with Philip the Fair of 
France, who had undertaken, without the consent of 
the Pope, to tax the Church and the clergy in his king- 
dom. Finally Philip caused the Pope to be attacked in 
his own town and taken prisoner. Shortly afterwards, 
the aged pontiff died from chagrin and vexation at the 



114 THE MEDLEVAL ERA 

indignities he had suffered. Two years later a French- 
man was elected Pope as Clement V, , who was induced by 
Philip to remove the papal see to Avignon, in south- 
eastern France, then a possession of the Pope (1309). 
This removal of the papal see from Kome caused a 
serious loss of prestige to the Pope. And furthermore 
the Popes at Avignon fell into such servile dependence 
upon the kings of France that their sojourn here of 
nearly seventy years came to be known as the l 'Baby- 
lonian Captivity of the Popes." 

In 1377 the papal residence was, to be sure, restored 
to Kome, but it was followed immediately by the great 
schism in the Western Church. The cardinals could 
not agree but elected two Popes. Thus the Church for 
over thirty years had two Popes at the same time, one 
at Rome, the other at Avignon. Both claimed to be the 
true successor of Peter, and each condemned and excom- 
municated the other and his adherents. This greatly 
troubled the consciences of men, for both Popes could 
not be legitimate incumbents of their office, and which 
one should be believed? This caused in the public mind 
a further decline of the papal authority, at the same 
time it caused much confusion in the government of 
the Church and gave rise to many pernicious practices. 

Many earnest men, and among them the chancellor 
of the University of Paris, John Gerson, pointed to an 
Ecumenical Council as the best means of remedying the 
evil. Such a council, it was thought, would bring about 
a reformation of the Church in both head and members, 
i. e. put a stop to the disastrous schism and abolish 
various abuses. At last a church council was called at 
Pisa, in 1409. This body deposed both of the contend- 
ing Popes and elected a new one. This attempt at 
reformation resulted in giving the Church three Popes 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 115 

instead of two, for the two that were deposed refused to 
accept the decision of the Council. 

There was now nothing to do, but to call another 
Church Council. This convened at Constance, in 1414. 
As soon as the convention had opened with this im- 
portant declaration, that an Ecumenical Council was 
superior to the Pope, the three Popes were deposed and 
a new one elected, who became generally acknowledged. 
But this was all that the convention could do to stop 
the ecclesiastical abuses. The new Pope opposed most 
vigorously every timely reform proposed. To settle the 
ecclesiastical and political troubles that had arisen in 
Bohemia, he was compelled to call another Ecumenical 
Council, at Basel, in 1431. When this assembly showed 
a serious determination to remedy the evils of the 
Church, the Pope neutralized its labors by calling op- 
posing Councils and suspending the one at Basel. The 
latter was finally dissolved, in 1443, without having ac- 
complished anything toward the reformation of the 
Church. 

These councils are known as Beforming Councils on 
account of the purpose for which they had been called. 
That they failed in their purpose was owing not only to 
the opposition of Popes, but also to the nature of the 
reformation they sought to effect. This was mainly to 
remedy a few of the worst abuses of the Church, while 
the false doctrines in which these abuses had their 
origin were left untouched. To the Popes, however, the 
theory of the power of the Church Councils was a con- 
tinual source of annoyance. Being an inheritance from 
the early Church, the principle, once revived was not 
readily abandoned. 

Towards the close of the 15th century, papacy de- 
generated still more. At that time the papal chair was 



116 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

occupied by several successive men, notorious for their 
tyranny, worldliness, and gross immorality. The worst 
of these was Alexander VI. (t 1503). This evil had at 
least this good result that it gave rise to a deep and 
general longing for a thorough reformation. 

48. Worship, Worship during the Middle Ages ap- 
pealed principally to the emotions and imparted little 
Christian knowledge. With the celebration of the mass 
(par. 24) as a central thought were connected a large 
number of prayers and ceremonies, so that very little 
time was left for Scripture reading, and preaching, 
although occuring now and then, was no longer con- 
sidered an essential part of the high mass. Even the 
instruction that could have been derived from the 
prayers and Scripture reading was lost, as the whole 
mass was carried out in Latin which the common people 
did not understand. 

Connected Scripture reading at worship had given 
way, especially during the era of doctrinal development, 
to selections (pericopes) appropriate to the day. In the 
beginning of the Middle Ages the reading of selections 
was universal, and the texts in use were mainly the 
same as the epistle and gospel selections used to-day. 

The eucharist as a sacrificial act received additional 
support in the doctrine that the bread and wine at the 
moment of consecration were changed in essence to the 
body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation). This 
doctrine, traces of which may be found in some of the 
early church fathers, originated in the Eastern Church. 
It was more fully developed at a later date in the West 
by Paschasius Kadbertus (died 865), abbot at Corbie 
and a cotemporary of St. Ansgar. The opposite view, 
that the bread and wine merely signified the body and 
blood of Christ had still here and there a talented 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 117 

defender. But the great majority were better satisfied 
with a view which made the value of the eucharist more 
tangible. The doctrine of transubstatiation was thus 
generally accepted, and at the Fourth Lateran Synod, 
in 1215, it was formally adopted as a correct expression of the 
faith of the Church. 

With this doctrine were connected several other 
errors in faith and practices. The priests feared lest in 
the distribution they might accidentally spill a drop of 
the wine thus changed to the blood of Christ, and, hence, 
withheld the cup from the laity. This custom they at- 
tempted to justify by the thought that the bread as 
constituting the body of Christ must also contain the 
blood of Christ ("de concomitantia", adopted at Con- 
stance, 1415). 

The consecrated bread (hostia), which was now 
looked upon as Christ's bodily presence, became an ob- 
ject of worship. A special festival, "Corpus Christi", was 
instituted, in 1264, to commemorate the transubstan- 
tiation miracle. 

The principal feature in the eucharist was no longer 
the distribution and receiving of the consecrated ele- 
ments, but the sacrifice effected by reading of the mass. 
This sacrifice, commonly called the sacrifice of the mass, 
was looked upon as a repetition (though bloodless) of 
the sacrifice on the cross, and was believed to be meri- 
torious before God on the part of those for whom it was 
offered, and that well-nigh without regard to the per- 
son's spiritual condition. It could be performed not 
only for those present, but also for such as were absent 
(private masses), and even for the dead. 

Only the priest could celebrate mass, and the clergy 
were more than ever looked up to as mediators 
between God and man. As large numbers were anxious 



118 



THE MEDIEVAL ERA 




Archbishop and Choirboys at a Liturgical Act. 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 119 

to secure these blessings many masses were required to 
be said, and special arrangements were finally made for 
the saying of mass by different priests at the same time 
in the same church. The mass became a source of great 
income, for, as a rule, it was said only in return for gifts 
and bequests to churches and cloisters. 

After the consecration of the elements their elevation took 
place at the sound of a small bell. The congregation fell upon their 
knees and worshiped Christ as visibly present. Such an adoration 
even took place in the streets, when the host was carried by the 
priest to the sick and the dying. 

When preaching occurred during the Middle Ages, it took place 
either before or after the high mass and without any connection 
with the same. Charlemagne and some of the better Popes did all 
in their power to keep up the preaching, but for want of suitable 
preachers it was allowed to decline. It often consisted of legends 
and apocryphal narratives more conducive to laughter than edifica- 
tion. During the latter part of the era preaching became more 
general. There were found at that time many distinguished 
preachers such as St. Bernard of Clairvaux and Tauler the Mystic. 

By the introduction of choirs the congregation was excluded 
from singing at the public worship. Only the prayer: Kyrie Eleison 
(Lord have mercy upon us ) was sung by the people. This prayer 
was also used on other occasions. This was particularly the case 
in Germany, where large masses of people would gather at the 
festivals and sing the quoted words over and over again. In this 
way the religious song of the common people degenerated into a 
meaningless screaming. To put some meaning into these tones it 
was necessary to use German words. Thus arose the first German 
hymns called "leisen" as they had grown out of and ended with 
Kyrie Eleison. One of these is the Easter leise: 

Christ ist erstanden 
Von der Marter Banden; 
Dess sollen wir alle froh sein. 
Christ will unser Trost sein. 
Kyrie Eleison. 

In addition to the leisen there arose during the Middle Ages the 
so-called sequences. They were composed in Latin. Even they 



120 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

were called forth by the need of words to the musical tone. At the 
greater festivals the choirs sang hallelujah. The last syllable be- 
came in time protracted more and more according to the rules then 
obtaining in music. In place of this protraction followed the se- 
quence. Finally each greater festival had its separate sequence. 
"Veni, Sancte Spiritus!" (Holy Spirit, Lord of Light) is one of 
these sequences. (See Church Book 245). 

49. Saint Worship and other Superstitions. The idola- 
trous veneration of the Virgin Mary and the saints was 
on the increase. New festivals were instituted in their 
honor, and the people called eagerly on them for their 
intercession. Belies were highly valued and gave rise to 
much superstition. Image-worship was increasing. 
Against this form of superstition several Emperors of 
the East, in the 8th century, remonstrated and decreed 
that images should neither be found nor worshiped in 
the churches. But the people headed by the monks 
arose against these decrees. They were supported by 
both the patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope of 
Home, both of whom defended the worship of images. 
Thus it became an easy matter for the image-loving 
Empress Theodora to restore the images in the churches 
and require their worship, in 842. 

In the West a synod at Frankfort-am-Main, in 794, 
at the suggestion of Charlemagne agreed to a compro- 
mise that images should be allowed in the churches but should not 
be worshiped. But even here public opinion and the 
authorithy of the Popes soon made image-worship 
general. 

Bepeating prayers began to be looked upon as a mer- 
itorious deed. The prayer of the heart gave way to the 
repetition of set prayers. The most common of these 
were: Pater Noster (the Lord's Prayer) and Ave Maria (the 
salutation to Mary). To facilitate the numbering of the 
prayers said the rosary was invented. 



CONSTITUTION AND CULTUS 121 

The rosary consists of a number of beads of different sizes on a 
string. The complete rosary has 15 decades or tens of smaller 
beads and between each decade a large bead. For every small bead 
"Ave Maria" is said and for every large one a "Pater Xoster", thus 
in the complete rosary are 150 "Ave Marias" and 15 "Pater Nos- 
ters". Some rosaries contain a smaller number of beads. 

The Ave Maria reads as follows: 

"Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum, benedicta tu in 
mulieribus (Luke 1: 28). Benedictus fructus ventris tui (Luke 
1: 42), Jesus Christus! Amen. Sancta Maria, Dei genitrix, ora 
pro nobis peccatoribus nunc et in hora mortis! Amen." (Hail, 
Mary, highly favored, the Lord is with thee, blessed art thou 
among women; blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus Christ. 
Amen. Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and in 
the hour of death. Amen.) 

50. The Church Art. Out of the basilica style of archi- 
tecture there grew during the Middle Ages two new 
styles of building, the Romanesque (e. g. cathedral of 
Lund, page 97) and the Gothic (cathedral of Uppsala, 
page 98). A Romanesque church is distinguished from 
the basilica by its vaulted ceiling. The round arch is 
predominant. The Gothic style is characterized by its 
pointed arch. Church bells came into use, and to have 
a place for them the churches were built with spires 
which should also serve to direct the eye and the mind 
upward. In the interior of the edifices the pulpit was 
built high and several altars were placed because of the 
great number of masses to be said. The altar in the 
middle of the choir recess of the church was the principal 
one and was called the high altar. Novelties of these 
times were the baptismal font and the confessional. 

The interior of the churches were ornamented with exquisite 
productions, both paintings and sculptures. These bear testimony 
to the fact that in spite of all errors there was found an unusual 
depth and truth in the Christian feeling and imagination of the 
times. Even music was steadily developing. 



122 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

The confessional was introduced in the latter part of the Middle 
Ages and consists of two apartments, one for the confesser and 
one for the father-confessor, so arranged that they can hear but 




Interior of the Cathedral at Lund. 



not see each other. This was done in order that the confesser 
might, if so desired, remain unknown to the priest and thus not be 
prevented by bashfulness from making a full confession of his sin. 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 123 

c. Life and Doorine* 

51. The Influence of the Church upon Society. At no other 
time did the Church exert such an influence in all direc- 
tions as during the Middle Ages. Through her agency 
order and stability was introduced among the Teutonic 
tribes; her strong organization served as a model for 
the rising states. She labored for improvement in juris- 
prudence, and sought to restrict the rough feuds so 
common in those turbulent times. Trough monks and 
priests the spiritual as well as material development 
was promoted, aud the rulers, that labored for the ele- 
vation of their subjects, found their most efficient help- 
ers among the men of the Church. 

On the other hand there were many Popes and prelates who to 
further their selfish ends did not scruple to excite war and revolts, 
and thus weaken the authority of all government. Furthermore 
the Church acquired an oppressive guardianship over the states and 
insisted upon retaining the same, even when the latter were ripe 
for a more independent development. For this reason there arose 
incessant struggles between the state and the Church, and for the 
settling of these disputes there was needed a reformation which 
should give the state sufficient freedom to work out its own par- 
ticular ends. 

. Private feuds the Church sought to restrict by the so-called ' 'Truce 
of God", an armistice, which should be observed from Wednesday 
evening to Monday morning, from the first Sunday in Advent to 
Epiphany, from the beginning of Lent until eight days after Easter, 
and from Ascension Day until eight days after Pentecost. 

52. The Educational and Disciplinary Work of the Church. 

Within the Church infant baptism was now the rule. 
For the instruction of the baptized children very little 
was done. In general, all were satisfied, if the Apostles' 
Creed and the Lord's Prayer could be repeated from 
memory by the young. Upon the elder members the 
Church exerted a strong influence through her institu- 



124 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

tions by which she hedged them in on all sides. This 
was especially done by the individual or private pen- 
ance. 

True penance included contrition of heart, confession, 
and satisfaction. Confession consisted in the enumera- 
tion of all sins before the confessor. This was called 
auricular confession and every adult was expected to 
make such a confession at least once a year. 

The oue who penitently confessed his sins received 
absolution, which was looked upon as an acquittal for 
Christ's sake from all eternal punishments. On the other 
hand it was held, that the sinner had to suffer the tem- 
poral punishments for his sins. From such punishments 
release could be secured by means of good works, such 
as prayers, alms, pilgrimages, etc. Such works were 
called satisfactions. Whoever could not furnish these 
satisfactions during lifetime had to undergo a painful 
process of purification in purgatory. 

The Church, however, knew how to lighten the burden 
of satisfactions and alleviate the torments of purga- 
tory Christ had — such was the doctrine— earned more 
than was necessary to ransom man from eternal death ; 
furthermore, the saints had not only fulfilled all that 
the law demanded of them, but by following the so- 
called evangelical injunctions — to live a celibate life, 
enter convents, etc. — they had performed superabund- 
ant works. All these works of supererogation consti- 
tuted an immense treasure which the Church had at its 
disposal and from which it could give to those who 
were in need. Kecipients of these gifts received also a 
corresponding reduction of satisfactions. This was 
called indulgence. 

At first indulgence was granted only to such as had 
taken upon themselves to perform some great work to 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 125 

the honor of God or the saints, or for the good of the 
Church. Thus indulgence was bestowed upon those who 
built churches, engaged in a crusade against the enemies 
of the faith and the Church, or who made pilgrimages to 
Rome during the year of jubilee. Before long it was 
deemed expedient to sell indulgences for money, and 
this not only for the Irving, but also for the dead. Con- 
trition of heart was, indeed, a requirement for obtain- 
ing indulgence, but the indulgence-venders were not very 
strict in enforcing this condition. They rather en- 
couraged the people in the belief that indulgence itself 
gave remission of sins. The sale of indulgences did more 
than anything else to lead men away from true repen- 
tance and lull them to sleep, and at the same time make 
the need of a thorough reformation keenly felt by all 
who had an awakened conscience. 

If a person in some flagrant way was disobedient, or 
promulgated a doctrine contrary to that of the Church 
he might be put under the ban. A community responsi- 
ble for some great crime might be placed under the 
interdict, which implied suspension of all public worship. 
The ban and the interdict were greatly feared even to 
the close of the Middle Ages. At the opening of the 
Modern Age they were less dreaded, both because of the 
freer views held by many, and because of the too fre- 
quent use made of these means by certain Popes against 
their political enemies. 

For the purpose of detecting heretics and force them 
to confess their error the inquisition was instituted in 
1229. 

Of the Church Bans there were, a lesser which excluded from 
the Lord's Supper and a greater which entailed a loss of all church 
privileges. The greater ban was accompanied by a loss of certain 



126 THE MEDLEVAL ERA 

civil rights and in some instances by outlawry and even capital 
punishment. 

A certain writer thus describes the condition at a place under 
the papal interdict: "The church bells are silent, the altars and the 
images are stripped of their ornaments and covered up, even the 
images on the outside of the church are thus covered. Only drag- 
ons, lions and monsters remains uncovered to inspire the behold- 
ers with horror. The church doors are shut, only in profound still- 
ness may the mass be said; in some instances the priest remains in 
the vestibule, where he briefly speaks to the multitude who appear 
in penitential garb. No dead are buried in consecrated ground 
except the priest, the beggar, the traveller, and little children under 
two years of age. Marriage is solemnized over the graves of the 
dead. The congregation fasts, no one shaves nor cuts his hair. No 
interchange of greetings are allowed. Everything must bear the 
marks of a land under a curse, where the spirit must suffer the 
pangs of hunger and thirst." 

The Church had already during the previous era had recourse 
to the sword against persistent heretics. She had thus entered 
upon the path on which she steadily advanced during the Middle 
Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era. This was a dangerous 
way. For, first of all, a faith called forth by compulsion is of little 
value; furthermore, many of the leading men in Church and state 
were subjected to the most cruel sufferings, because they could 
not approve of the false doctrines and practices then in vogue. Thus 
there arose within the papal Church a religious persecution which 
in time, compass, and studied cruelty far exceeded that of the 
pagans against the Christians in the early ages of the Church. 
What wonder that the Church degenerated, when she fought her 
battles with wordly weapons and allowed the Sword of the Spirit to 
he unused? What wonder that she was exposed to storms and 
tempests, when she had become drunk with the blood of the saints? 

The Inquisition was the most cruel means for these persecu- 
tions. Had it contented itself with bringing civil punishment upon 
such persons as openly opposed the doctrine and ordinances of the 
Church, it would even then from a higher Christian standpoint be 
censured, as offences against the Church ought to be followed by 
church punishments; yet it could in a measure have been defended 
during a time when spiritual and temporal, ecclesiastical and civil 
affairs were so closely interwoven. But there developed a marked 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 127 



eagerness to apprehend heretics, real as well as suspected. When- 
ever the inquisition was established a despicable system of espionage 
was inagurated. To obtain general co-operation informers were 
given a share in the confiscated property of the victims, and many 
were induced from motives of avarice or personal grudge to go the 
errands of the inquisition. 

Those who were apprehended by the inquisition very seldom 
escaped punishment. The accusers and witnesses were unknown 
to the accused and charges wholly unsustained often secured con- 
viction. The examination of the accused was held less for the pur- 
pose of discovering the truth than to call forth ambiguous answers 
that could be given an unfavorable interpretation. A ready con- 
fession of guilt freed the accused f ron capital punishment, but as a 
rule it brought confiscation of property, imprisonment, or a long 
penance in a special garb (san benito, saccus bededictus, blessed 
sack). Those who did not confess guilt or had nothing to confess 
were made to languish in dungeons or subjected to the most pain- 
ful tortures. Many of the innocent and unfortunate victims pleaded 
guilty to everything simply to escape the agonies of the torture. 
Capital punishment was generally inflicted by burning at the stake. 
The execution was public. In Spain it was connected with many 
solemn ceremonies, and became an "auto da fe" (an act of faith). 
The worst scenes of the iniquities of the inquisition were in 
Italy, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and Germany. England and 
the Northern countries were almost wholly exempt from its cruel- 
ties. It reached its height during the latter part of the 15th cen- 
tury (in Spain) and during the period of the Reformation. The 
most famous inquisitor was the Spaniard Torquemada, who aimed 
at freeing his country from Jews and Mohammedans. We can be- 
gin to estimate the extent of the power of the inquisition, when we 
note that Torquemada alone caused about 8,000 persons to be burned 
at the stake, and 6,500 more who during the trial died or made 
their escape were burned in effigy. The victims in the Netherlands 
during the reign of Charles V. are, with probable exaggeration, 
estimated at 50,000 to 100,000 persons. That the inquisition often 
became the tool of tyrannical rulers can hardly excuse the Church, 
for in this matter she lent herself as a willing servant to political 
intrigue and cruelty. 

The more humane spirit of modern times has abolished this 
most cruel institution. At present there is but one inquisitorial 



128 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA. 

tribunal left — the one in the Vatican — but it does not now appre- 
hend heretics, only heretical writings. 

53. The Religious and Moral Condition. The Teutonic 
race has a deep religious character which manifested 
itself in the pious devotion of the people to the Church 
and its institutions, in the munificent gifts to churches 
and cloisters, and in the general enthusiasm for the ex- 
tension of Christianity. Certain men and women among 
them shone as bright stars by their deep and genuine 
piety and their willingness to sacrifice everything for 
the good of others. Magnificent institutions of charity 
testify to the fact that religion was a mighty force dur- 
ing the Middle Ages. 

But there were some grave defects in both the re- 
ligious and moral life. The legalism of the Old Testa- 
ment which had already manifested itself in the early 
Church now completely controlled church life. As a 
consequence an undue importance was placed upon out- 
ward deeds and ascetic exercices, while little attention 
was paid to the condition of the heart. And, hence, under 
the pious surface there often dwelt a haughty spirit. 
This accounts for the sharp contrasts that are so no- 
ticeable during the Middle Ages : gross superstition, ruthless 
brutality, and wanton immorality. 

Elizabeth of Thuringia was a Hungarian princess who at the early- 
age of four came to the landgrave of Thuringia, who lived in great 
style at the Castle of Wartburg, then widely known for its 
literary atmosphere. Here Elizabeth was to be educated by the 
landgrave as she was betrothed to his young son Louis. During her 
early years she was a sweet and lovely child. She was of a joyous 
and happy disposition, but even in her plays she showed that in the 
depth of her soul there dwelt religious earnestness and sincerity. 
When grown she married Louis, who had already succeeded his 
father as ruler. With the whole love of a pure and noble soul she 
clung to her husband who was equally known for his piety and his 
valor. 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 129 

Here begins the most beautiful and attractive part of her short 
but eventful life. She deported herself as a tender and loving 
spouse and exercised herself most zealously in all Christian virtues, 
especially in humility and sympathy, charity and self-sacrifice. Her 
mode of living was simple in the extreme. Together with her maids 
she spun the wool for the garments of Franciscan monks and the 
poor. She made long journeys on foot to visit the sick, spoke cheer- 
fully to them, and always brought a gift of some kind. At the foot 
of Wartburg, she established a home for the poor, and for orphans. 
Legends have ascribed various miracles to her, and these may be 
regarded as a wreath of flowers with which posterity has adorned 
the picture of the lovely princess. 

Soon, however, there began for her a time of sorrow and suffer- 
ing. Her husband died in southern Italy on his way to the Orient to 
take part in the crusade of Fredrick II. In addition to this the 
brother of the landgrave took his brother's possessions by force 
and showed the most heartless cruelty to his poor sister-in-law. 
From Wartburg she had to flee with her young children, and the in- 
habitants in the neighboring town of Eisenach showed their bene- 
factress the greatest ingratitude and heartlessness, mostly out of 
fear for the new ruler. Only with difficulty could she find shelter 
for herself and her little ones. She had to live in poverty and 
misery for a while, until she finally received the castle of Marburg 
as a jointure, where she spent the remaining years of her life. 

Even before th^ death of her husband she received as her con- 
fessor and spiritual adviser a man of the most unenviable reputa- 
tion, Conrad of Marburg, the most cruel of Germany's inquisitors. 
With fanatic perseverance and grim consistency he endeavored after 
Elizabeth's removal to Marburg to make her a saint by completely 
crushing her own will and imposing the severest discipline to which 
she willingly and even joyfully submitted. 

Her severe asceticism appears unnatural and even repulsive to a 
sound religious feeling. Heavy lashes were laid on her back. The 
faithful maids she had been surrounded with from childhood had to 
leave the house, and in their place a boorish maid and a deaf widow 
were employed for the purpose of trying the humility and patience 
of the poor princess. She engaged in the most menial duties, 
dressed in a gray frock worn to tatters, and commanded her maids 
to address her with the familiar thou instead of any more polite 
title, and sit beside her as equals. She so devoted herself to the 
care of the sick that she had no time for her own children. She 

9 



130 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

sent them away in order to subdue her love to her own flesh and 
blood, believing that she thus did God a service. 

In Conrad of Marburg we find the culmination of the severe 
legalism of the Middle Ages that endeavored by force to create a 
kingdom of holiness on earth. Elizabeth of Thuringia is one of the 
noblest victims of this tendency. Subdued, crushed in body and 
spirit, she died at the early age of twenty-four years (1231) . Soon 
after her death she was canonized by the Pope. 

Toward the close of the Middle Ages there was organized the 
order of the Sisters of Elizabeth who should imitate the noble wo- 
man in her care for the sick and poor. In our time this order has 
extended its activity to various places in Protestant Europe. 



Ascetic life reached its climax in the processions of the Flag- 
ellants. These processions became most common in times of 
pestilence, earthquakes, and other calamities. They began about 
the middle of the thirteenth century and did not close till about the 
beginning of the fifteenth. They spread like an epidemic and 
swept all with them, men and women, high and low, young and old. 
Sometimes the participants in a single procession were numbered 
by the thousands. In close ranks they marched from city to city, 
uttering bitter lamentations and singing penitential hymns, at the 
same time scourging each other so that blood flowed profusely — all 
to pacify and avert the wrath of God. They reached their height 
during the ravages of the black-death. 

These movements were an expression of tormented consciences, 
anxiously seeking peace with God. But this peace was not sought 
at the right source and could, therefore, not be found. These pro- 
cessions frequently led to scandalous scenes, so that the Popes 
sought first to discourage them, and finally forbade them altogether. 

Toward the close of the Middle Ages morals sank to a low level. 
Wordliness and immorality prevailed among the servants of the 
Church, the Popes themselves often leading the way. The eccle- 
siastics were not able to met the demands of the times even in 
general learning. Respect for the Church continued to decrease; 
and as contempt for the guardians of religion increased there followed 
among the educated a disregard for religion itself. Learning > 
talent, and taste were considered the highest human aims. The 
moral decline kept pace with the religious. From the courts 
immorality spread to the lower classes to such an extent that 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 131 

possibly never before had society sunk as low as at the close of the 
Middle Ages. 

54. Monasticism. Monastic life was the ideal of the 
Middle Ages, and was regarded as the only one leading 
to Christian perfection. In it the religious life of the age 
developed both its merits and its defects. 

At first the monks of the Benedictine order did a 
great and good work in the Church of the West, but 
with the increase of power and wealth worldliness and 
immorality developed in the cloisters, especially after 
they were freed from the supervision of the bishops. To 
improve the existing conditions and restore discipline 
and good order associations of various cloisters were 
made and placed under a common supervision. The 
greatest of these associations was the congregation of 
Clugny, so named for its principal monastery, Clugny, in 
Burgundy. Another very celebrated order was that of 
the Cistercians, founded for the same purpose. Its most 
celebrated member was St. Bernard of Clairvaux (died 
1153). It has also been called the order of St. Bernard. 
Monks of this order founded the first monasteries in 
Sweden : Alvastra in Ostergotland, Varnhem in Vestergot- 
land, Nydala in Sm aland — all established near the mid- 
dle of the twelfth century. 

One monastic order originated in Sweden. It com- 
prised both monks and nuns and was founded, in 1370, 
by St. Bridget, or Birgitta, a pious woman of noble 
birth. It was called by her the order of our Saviour, 
but is better known as the order of St. Bridget. The 
principal monastery was located at Yadstena (in the 
central part of southern Sweden). The order spread 
over the greater part of Europe, and labored for a time 
with great success by preaching and spreading religious 
literature, especially in the northern countries. 



132 



THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 



The Crusades gave birth to a number of spiritual 
orders of knights, whose members were to fight the in- 
fidels (moslems), care for the sick and poor, and thus 
unite the duties of the knight and monk. These were 
the Knights of St. John (founded about 1050, also 

called Hospitallers), The 
Templars (founded 1118), 
and the Teutonic Knights 
(founded 1120). 

Of the greatest impor- 
tance to the mediaeval 
Church were, however, the 
Mendicant Orders. The 
two most important were 
the Dominicans and Fran- 
ciscans. St. Dominic, a 
Spanish canon, had dur- 
ing a journey in France 
learned to know the great 
danger that threatened 
the Church from the large 
number of heretics found 
there, and he determined 
to devote his life to their 
conversion. Barefooted, 
clad in a black cloak with 
a rope around his waist 
(afterwards the official 
garment of the order) he 
began his itinerary preaching. A number of like-minded 
persons joined him and he organized with them a so- 
ciety whose object it should be to preach the Word and 
convert the heretics. Soon (1215) the new order re- 
ceived the sanction of the Pope under the name of the 




A Knight Templar. 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 133 

Preaching Brothers, or Friars. They are, however, better 
known from their founder as Dominicans. They are also 
known from their black cloak as the Black Friars. The 
order was forbidden to hold any possessions. Its mem- 
bers were to live on alms. In their great zeal for the 
conversion of heretics, the Dominicans did not always 
make use of the same praiseworthy means as their 
founder. They on the other hand acquired a sad noto- 
riety for the use they made of the inquisition, which in- 
strument was soon placed entirely in their hands. 

To labor in 'preaching and spiritual ministrations, and to 
abstain from temporal possessions were also the rules of the 
Franciscan order. It was so named for St. Francis of 
Assisi, a man who with an enthusiasm bordering on 
fanaticism accounted it his greatest joy to follow his 
Saviour in the most abject poverty and self-denial in 
order to serve his fellowmen. The Franciscans wore a 
gray garment and, hence, were also known as Gray 
Friars. 

Both orders attained a great and far reaching in- 
fluence. The members did not remain within cloister 
cells, but went out into the world and served as preach- 
ers and confessors. Among the common people they 
had a greater influence even than the priests. Men from 
among them were chosen as professors in the higher in- 
stitutions of learning. The Pope always befriended them 
and in return they became the strongest props of the 
papal power. The rule of espousing poverty and re- 
nouncing all earthly possessions could not be main- 
tained in the long run, and upon wealth and power fol- 
lowed also a decline in their cloisters. 

A third order of Mendicants was that of St. 
Augustine of somewhat later origin. It was of this 
order that Luther became a member. 



134 



THE MEDIEVAL ERA 







St. Bridget. 



St. Bridget and her institution. In the beginning of the fourteenth 
century there was born on an estate in Roslagen, Sweden, the 
prophetess from the North, St. Bridget, the only person from 
Sweden who acquired European distinction during the Middle Ages. 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 135 

Her father, the renowned lawyer from Uppland, Birger Persson, 
and her mother were both pious Catholics and sought to arouse in 
the daughter an intense religious feeling. At the age of eleven, 
after the death of her mother, Bridget took up her home in Oster- 
gotland with an aunt, a strict and determined woman. Here she 
developed that strength of character which afterwards gave her 
such power over her surroundings. What especially characterizes 
her is a remarkable willpower and a moral superiority in connection 
with a deep religious convinction and an earnestness which bordered 
on frenzy. While yet young she was married to a lawyer, Wolf 
Gudmarsson, a noble but weak character. With reverent devotion 
he looked up to his wife, who in turn clung to her husband with 
true fidelity. They had four sons and four daughters. In the edu- 
cation of her children Bridget showed great wisdom and intelli- 
gence. Together with her husband she submitted to severe pen- 
ance, visited churches and cloisters, took care of the sick and desti- 
tute, undertook long pilgrimages first to Uppsala (shrine of St. 
Eric) and Trondhjem (St. Olaf), afterwards to Compostella (shrine 
of James, the Elder) . After their return from the last troublesome 
journey, Gudmarsson died, in 1344, in Alvastra cloister, whither he 
had retired to end his days in peace. 

The death of her husband seemed to make a deep impression on 
Bridget. Henceforth she led a stricter life and before her spiritual 
eye appeared visions or revelations, in which Christ himself or the 
Virgin Mary were exhorting to faith and charity, to good works and 
severe penance, or uttering dire warnings. Around herself she 
assembled pious and learned men who assisted her in translating 
her visions into Latin which language she together with her daugh- 
ter Catherine learned. Meanwhile her zeal increased and the scope 
of her work widened. She felt herself called by God to arouse the 
debased and spiritually enfeebled Church to repentance. In the 
first place she turned to her kinsman, the frivolous Magnus Ericsson 
and directed to him and his court strong words of warning. Even to 
foreign princes she sent sharp admonitions. It was at this time 
that she began to think of founding a new order for educating 
pious young men and women to carry on a holy warfare against a 
wicked and perverse world. 

In company with her son Birger she left . Sweden, in 1349, to 
take part in the great jubilee that should be celebrated in Rome 
the following year. Here she remained quite a while, and divided 



136 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

her time between devotion and charity, going from church to 
church, helping the destitute, comforting those in sorrow, and rep- 
rimanding the impenitent. She burned with the zeal which of 
old drove the prophets of Israel to pronounce judgment over rulers, 
priests, and people, and she hesitated not in exposing the godless- 
ness and immorality among high and low — especially the ecclesias- 
tics — in the city that formerly sheltered so many saints and had 
been a witness of the death of so many martyrs. The Pope himself 
did not escape her rebukes, although she held his office in the 
greatest reverence. No wonder that she caused quite a sensation 
and exerted a strong influence not only in Rome, but also over the 
whole of Italy. 

As the Popes at this time resided at Avignon and seldom visited 
Rome, she did not receive papal sanction for her order before 1370. 
Later, in her old age, she made a pilgrimage to the holy sepulcher at 
Jerusalem. Soon after her return to Rome she died, in 1373, at the 
age of 73. 

Bridget named her order for the Saviour (St. Salvator's). Accord- 
ing to her conviction, the rules for it had been revealed to her by 
Christ himself. It is, however, more commonly called by her 
name. The number of sisters was sixty. In addition to this the 
order had thirteen priests and four helpers (deacons), besides eight 
ministering brethren who had charge of the menial labors. The 
order was ruled by an abbess with extensive authority who was 
chosen by the sisters. 

The convent regulations were very strict. Songs and prayers 
like Ave Maria and Pater Noster were to be frequently said. Fasting 
was prescribed for certain seasons and days. Strong and nourishing 
food was forbidden. Food consisting of vegetables, fish, and milk 
was preferred. At the church door should be placed a bier, and 
in the center of the church should be found an open grave, around 
which the sisters should daily sing "De profundis" (Ps. 130). No 
member of the cloister was allowed to go outside of the walls. The 
sisters were not allowed to speak to each other until the great mass 
had been said; visits were seldom allowed, a nun was never per- 
mitted to speak to visitors, except in the presence of witnesses. 

Monks and nuns were to live in separate houses on opposite 
sides of the church. The sisters should make confession to one of 
the priests at some window where they could be heard but not 
seen. Only in two instances were the priests allowed to enter the 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 137 

sisters' side of the convent, namely when the sacrament should be 
administered to a sick nun and when a funeral took place. 

Besides devotional exercises the nuns were occupied with 
needle-work and lace-making, and the monks were kept busy copy- 
ing books and translating them to the vernacular, sometimes with 
original compositions. Every Sunday there should be popular 
preaching in the vernacular to which also the people of the neigh- 
borhood should have access. 

The garb of the nun consisted of a gray dress of worsted with 
a black leather belt around the waist and a gray cloak covering the 
whole. That of the monks was of the same color. 

The refectory in the cloister was a great vaulted room, but 
the cells were small, about six feet wide and twelve feet long with 
a small aperture in the wall to serve as a window. 

The cloister at Vadstena enjoyed a great reputation for a long 
time. Thousands of pilgrims wended their way thither yearly to 
confess their sins and receive absolution. Such pilgrims often gave 
rich donations to the cloister. Even members of royal families, 
e. g. queen Margaret and king Christopher were enrolled in the 
cloister. Queen Philippa, wife of king Eric of Pomerania, died 
there. In the different countries daughter-institutions were estab- 
lished and during the most prosperous time of the institution there 
were found not less than 70 such convents. In the Catholic coun- 
tries there are still a number of convents of St. Bridget. 

Toward the close of the Middle Ages the discipline of the Vad- 
stena cloister became less rigid, as luxury and high living crept in 
with increasing wealth. This convent, the last one in Sweden, was 
finally suppressed, in 1595, by Duke Charles, after an existence of 
more than two hundred years. 

On the religious literature of the northern countries down to 
the Reformation the order exerted the greatest influence. A lively 
intercourse in literary matters existed between the Scandinavian 
convents of the order. The literature of St. Bridget's order was 
written in a composite language of the northern dialects with a 
predilection for the Swedish. Although the greater portion con- 
sisted of translations, yet this literature had a great influence on 
the development of the Swedish language and attained in those 
times a very wide circulation. 

St. Francis of Assisi. In the little mountain town of Assisi, 100 
miles north of Rome, the founder the Franciscan order was born, 



138 



THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 



in 1182, and was carefully educated by his father, a rich merchant, 
though not for any of the learned professions. He was a gay and 
light-hearted youth and took an active and worthy part in the wars 
of his native land. He was taken captive and spent a year in 
prison among his enemies. After his return home he was attacked 
by a serious illness which wrought a complete change in him. With 
great self-denial he now devoted himself to the care of the sick 
and was most liberal to the poor and needy. If he found a leper he 

gave him the brotherly 
kiss without hesitation. 
He soon began to re- 
ceive revelations in the 
form of dreams and vis- 
ions. Once while at 
prayer he thought he 
heard a voice saying: 
"Go and repair my 
ruined Church." He 
interpreted the words 
in a literal sense and 
began to repair a dilap- 
idated chapel near As- 
sisi. To procure mon- 
ey for this purpose he 
sold his horse and also 
some of his father's 
property. The latter 
became so exasperated 
over this that he caused 
his son to be impris- 
oned and maltreated. 
Francis, however, did 
not trouble himself a- 
bout this. He appealed to his heavenly Father, and, after his flight 
from home, he selected a beggar as his father, who should bless 
him, when his father after the flesh cursed him. 

He now put on a friar's frock, exchanged his shoes for sandals 
and subjected himself to the severest discipline. Thrice every night 
he scourged himself with an iron chain first for his own sins, 
secondly for the sins of the world, and lastly for the souls in purga- 
tory. After some time he returned to the vicinity of his home and 




Monk in Robe of Order. 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 139 

there spent two years in quiet meditations, without caring for the 
abuse heaped upon him. One day there was read in his hearing the 
10th chapter of St. Matthew — the sending forth of the Apostles. 
He was so affected by it that he resolved to lead a life of apostolic 
self-denial and poverty. He discarded the sandals, for a belt he 
used a rope about his waist and carried no staff (Matt. 10: 10). 
The coarse gray frock with hood — originally the herdsman's gar- 
ment, but afterward the uniform of the Franciscan monks — he 
retained. Thus clad he walked about the streets of the city as 
beggar and preacher of repentance. "Peace be with you", was his 
greeting to all he met, even to those who ridiculed him. Toward 
all he showed a soul-winning love, even toward the street rabble 
who threw stones and dirt at him. 

Such a love coupled with patience was bound in the long run to 
awaken admiration in all nobler minds. Several persons associated 
themselves with him, among them several priests, also a rich 
burgher who sold all he had and gave the proceeds to the poor. 
These disciples he sent out two and two to preach the gospel. In 
some localities they were well received, in others they were rudely 
turned away. 

When, in 1210, he had won ten adherents, he considered the 
time ripe for giving his followers a code of rules. First of all he 
inculcated poverty as a holy duty. They should deny themselves 
all luxuries and not feel ashamed of securing their livelihood 
through alms. Any one who could ply a trade should thus be occu- 
pied, but not for money, only for the necessities of life. Over the 
body they should gain control by fasting and by flogging themselves 
thrice a week. 

The special efforts of the order were to be directed towards 
arousing a worldly people by an earnest preaching of repentance. 
They were also to care for the sick, and for them they were allowed 
to receive money, when necessity demanded the same. The opinion 
of men they should little regard, but be humble and kind to all, and 
leave the judgment of their enemies to God. They ought not to 
assume haughty, pharisaical airs, but always deport themselves in 
an open, hearty manner so as to inspire confidence. In order to 
show their humility the Franciscans called themselves the Minor 
Brethren (fratres minores), while on the other hand the Dominicans 
called themselves the Superior Brethren (fratres majores) . 

Having established a strict code for his order and organized a 
number of cloisters in Italy, he directed his attention to the con- 



140 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

version of the Mohammedans. For this purpose he went to Egypt, 
was taken prisoner by the Saracens, and brought before the sultan. 
"I come", said he to the sultan, "sent by God to show you and your 
people the way of salvation. ' ' To prove the truth of Christianity 
he proposed to go through a fiery ordeal, if a Mohammedan priest 
to prove the truth of Islam was willing to do the same. But the 
sultan, who probably looked upon him as a demented fanatic, did 
not allow it. He was treated kindly, was offered large gifts which, 
however, he refused, and was finally given his freedom. 

After his return home he continued his strict ascetic life till his 
body wasted gradually away. He died in a church in Assisi, in 
1226, and was two years later canonized by the Pope. 

Scarcely any other man has been so praised after his death as 
St. Francis. It was asserted that during the latter part of his life 
he bore the marks of Christ's five wounds, and attempts were made 
to show a number of similarities between him and Christ, even in 
the performance of miracles. Though we turn away from such 
idolatry, we cheerfully admit that he was a most extraordinary 
man. He was filled with a glowing love to God and man, and pre- 
sented a remarkably blameless character. To his poetic soul all 
nature seemed alive and conscious. He addressed the earth, the 
vineyards, the trees, the flowers, the animals, the sun, the moon, 
and the stars as brothers and sisters and bade them join him in 
singing the glory of God. 

Upon his age he exerted the greatest influence. Already during 
his life his order spread with extraordinary rapidity, and fifty years 
after his death there were not less than 8,000 Franciscan cloisters 
with 200,000 monks. But as his demands on frail human nature 
were too great, his work contained from the very beginning the 
seeds of deterioration, and before long his order like the rest fell 
into decay. 

55. Scholasticism. In the convent and cathedral 
schools the priests received a meagre education for their 
calling. Out of the cathedral schools grew the universi- 
ties which at first had but one faculty. The universities 
of Paris and Oxford were renowned as seats of theolog- 
ical learning. The university of Uppsala received its 
charter from the Pope in 1477. 

Scholasticism originated in the cathedral schools 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 141 

and from them passed to the universities. Its object 
was with the help of Greek philosophers, especially Aris- 
totle, to systematize and vindicate the accepted creeds 
of the Church. The pious and keen-witted St. Anselm, 
archbishop of Canterbury (died 1109) is usually re- 
garded as its founder. He made a valuable addition to 
theological learning by his development of the doctrine 
of the vicarious atonement of Christ. 

Peter Abelard (died 1142) was a gifted but restless 
spirit. In his zeal for the scientific development of 
church doctrine he approached the verge of rationalism. 
His views conflicted with various doctrines of the Church 
and he was, accordingly, persecuted and denounced as a 
heretic. 

The subsequent scholastics, or schoolmen, accepted 
as true the prevailing church dogmas without inquiring 
whether they were based on the bible or merely derived 
from tradition (see par, 18), as in their view the latter 
had the same authority as the bible. Tradition did not 
only include an oral reproduction of the teaching of 
Christ and his Apostles, but everything that possessed 
ecclesiastical authority and sanction, e. g. important 
decision of Church Councils, expressions of opinion from 
the church fathers, papal decrees, concerning doctrine, 
government and cultus. It was, therefore, easy to find 
support for various human doctrines that were in direct 
opposition to the Word of God. By accepting and 
defending such fancies the schoolmen developed and 
strengthened the false teachings as well as practices of 
the Mediaeval Church. As a result their system of theol- 
ogy contained many glaring contradictions to har- 
monize which cunning and sophistry were often resorted 
to, and this in the end brought scholasticism into 
disrepute. 



142 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

As a compiler and systeraatizer of the church dog- 
mas Peter Lombard (died 1164) gained great distinc- 
tion. His manual of theology (Libri quattuor senten- 
tiarum) became the standard text-book of scholasticism 
in all subsequent times. 

The Dominican Thomas Aquinas (died 1274 1 and 
the Franciscan John Duns Scotus (died 1308) were both 
distinguished for profound learning. Their followers 
were named after their masters Thomists and Scotists. 
The former followed St. Augustine in the doctrine of sin 
and grace, while the latter were Semi-Pelagians. Another 
controversy between them was that of the sinlessness of 
the Virgin Mary, which the Scotists affirmed and the 
Thomists denied. 

56. Mysticism. Contemporary with scholasticism there 
was an opposite tendency in the Middle Ages known as 
Mysticism. While scholasticism gathered the material for 
its belief from Holy Writ and tradition, mysticism 
pointed to the word of the Holy Spirit in man as the 
source whence spiritual light and life came to him. Thus 
religion was less a matter of the intellect than of the 
heart and feeling, not mainly a knowledge of God, but 
a life-communion with him, a communion which could 
be acquired only by dying away from one's self and the 
world and through meditation becoming absorbed by 
the divine. 

Mysticism was closely allied to Neo-Platonic philos- 
ophy. The mediaeval mysticism always showed great 
affinity for pantheism, but as it emphasized doctrine 
less than self-abnegation in the following of Christ the 
erroneous tendency became less apparent ; and on the 
other hand the religious fervor of mysticism formed 
a salutary off-set against the cant of scholasticism. 

Mysticism had three periods of development: 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 143 

a) The French (Romance) mysticism stood in close 
relation to scholasticism before the latter had degen- 
erated. Its foremost representative was Bernard of 
Clairvaux. Several teachers in the convent school of St. 
Victor were mystics of renown, such as Hugo (died 
1141) and the Franciscan Bonaventura (died 1274). 
These presented their mystic theology in scholastic 
forms. 

b) The German mysticism which reached its height 
during the fourteenth century separated itself from 
scholasticism, which had now begun to degenerate. It 
was founded by the profound thinker Master Eckhart 
(died 1329), and was farther developed by the popular 
preacher John Tauler (died 1361), and found expression 
in the so-called German Theology, a work of an un- 
known hand, and much valued by Luther. These per- 
sons represented mysticism in its purest form. 

c) The Dutch mysticism was altogether practical in 
its tendency. Its foremost representative was Thomas 
a Kempis (died 1471), whose celebrated work, The 
Imitation of Christ, is more widely circulated and read than 
any other devotional book, except the Bible. 

The affinity of mediaeval mysticism to Neo-Platonic philosophy 
had its origin in a literary production of the Orient attributed, 
though erroneously to Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts 17: 34). 
From this work the learned monk John Scotus Erigena (850) re- 
ceived impressions which led him into deep and for those times 
quite original investigations, and also inclined him towards pan- 
theistic views. This tendency toward pantheism characterized the 
mysticism of the Middle Ages, as it in reality characterizes all 
extreme and one-sided mysticism. 

Bernard of Clairvaux. This remarkable man was born in. the year 
1091 in Burgundy. His father was a brave and noble knight. His 
pious mother had consecrated him from his birth for the cloister. 
Early the boy manifested deep feeling and showed greater pref- 
erence for religious matters than for play. At an early age he 



144 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 



tn to study the bible and theological writings. His brothers 
wanted him to enter a learned profession, but his own inclination 
and the memory of his mother, who had died, while he was yet a 
youth, led him to choose a monastic life. 

At this time there had arisen a new order of monks in Citeaux 
(Cistercium), Burgundy, whose strict regulations deterred the 
ordinary class from entering it. But Bernard on the other hand 
felt an inclination to join just such an organization. Together with 
thirty like-minded comrades he entered this order at the age of 
twenty-two, and discharged his monastic duties with the utmost 
faithfulness and diligence. Lest he should relax his ascetic zeal, 
he put this question continually to himself: "Bernard, why art thou 
here?" The report of his sanctity spread far and wide, and after a 
few years the cloister could not shelter all who sought admission. 
Then it was decided to found a new cloister with Bernard as abbot. 

The new cloister was located 65 miles north of Citeaux in an 
uninhabited valley which received the name of Clairvaux (Clara 
vallis, pleasant vale). Here Bernard and his monks could hardly 
support themselves at first, but by indefatigable labor they changed 
the desolate place to a well cultivated tract which could support 
thousands of poverty stricken people in time of need. Profound 
stillness prevailed here, broken only by the busy hum of the monks 
at work in the field, and by their hymns of praise. The scene made 
a deep impression on all who visited the people, and it has been 
said that no one there dared to do an improper deed' or speak a 
vulgar word. 

Here Bernard went so far in his ascetic zeal that he ruined his 
health; later he censured himself for this. For sleep he thought . 
he had no time, allowing himself only a few hours' rest each night. 
His food consisted of bread and milk or vegetables. Nearest the 
body he wore a garment of haircloth, which he afterwards discarded 
as the fact had become known and the regulations prescribed noth- 
ing about it. He would not appear holier than the rest of the 
brethren. 

It was his custom, when he had fulfilled his outward duties, to 
withdraw from the rest to devote himself to prayer, meditation, 
studies, and literary work. The bible was his best book, he carried 
it with him even during his saunterings in the woods. Here in 
lonely meditation and prayer he learned to penetrate more fully 
into the truths of revelation. At such times the external world 
was seemingly dead to him. He had once been wandering a whole 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 145 

day along the shores of the beautiful Genevan lake, but had not 
noticed its wonderful scenery, until some one called his attention 
to it. During such hours of solitude it was that he sometimes 
reached a mystic ecstasy, when he believed himself to behold the 
glory of God and taste of heavenly bliss. 

He also found time to devote himself to practical things which 
proves his many-sidedness. His piety and sanctity, his great 
talents, his Christian experience, his knowledge of the human heart 
gave him a great reputation, and men's confidence in him was un- 
bounded-. He was asked to draw up the rules for the Knight 
Templars. In times of doubt and spiritual trials, many resorted to 
him for comfort and counsel. His sermons made a profound im- 
pression upon the masses who flocked to hear him. The literary 
taste of the times was unnatural and his sermons are tinged with 
allegorical expositions, flowery diction, numerous antitheses, yet 
they are full of deep and serious thought, mystical tenderness, and 
a burning love of Christ. They are powerful exhortations to re- 
pentance and a holy life. 

Everywhere he made his influence felt for the protection of the 
suffering and the oppressed; he dared to defend truth and justice 
even against the great and mighty of this world. An example will 
illustrate this fact. A prince in France would not become reconciled 
to one of his bishops; even excommunication had no effect. Bernard 
once celebrated mass in his presence. Carrying the consecrated 
host in the holy vessel Bernard moved through the awe-stricken 
audience right down to the prince and conjured him in the name of 
the Saviour, bodily present, to reconcile himself with the bishop. 
As if struck by lightning the prince fell to the ground, his power 
of resistance was broken. It is even told of Bernard that he 
wrought many miraculous cures of the sick. When we consider 
what power he wielded over the minds of men and that he lived in 
a time of religious commotion, this will hardly surprise us. 

On various occasions he figures as the most influential man in 
all Christendom. Two Popes had been chosen, neither was willing 
to yield to the other. Without hesitation Bernard decided to sup- 
port the worthiest and succeeded in securing for him general recogni- 
tion. At a later date he came forth as the preacher of a crusade. 
By his glowing eloquence he awakened the greatest enthusiasm. 
Multitudes pressed forward to receive the sign of the cross. Even 
the Germans along the Rhine who understood not his language 

10 



146 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 

were moved by his gestures, his looks, and the tone of his voice. 
The prophetic confidence with which he predicted the successful 
issue of the enterprise fired even the most lukewarm and sluggish. 
The king of France and the Emperor of Germany went in person 
to the Orient. The failure of the enterprise, however, tended to 
reduce in a measure Bernard's reputation. 

His attempt to convert the numerous heretics of southern 
France were less successful. 

Least of all he appeals to us in his dealings with Abelard, known 
for his unhappy love for Heloise, a gifted and noble woman. This 
man possessed an independent, comprehensive spirit, but was too 
critical in his nature and aroused a great commotion by his theo- 
logical speculations which were not in accord with the Church doc- 
trine of those times. At a French synod Bernard caused the decree 
of reprobation to be passed on Abelard and through his influence the 
decree was ratified by the papal see. The two distinguished men 
were, however, finally reconciled. 

From the busy world Bernard loved to retire to his cloister, 
where he might undisturbed commune with God in song and 
prayer. Of his religious compositions the best known is, ' 'Salve 
caput cruentatum". He pined away slowly, and died in 1153. He 
was shortly afterwards canonized by the Pope. 

The order of Cistercians attained a great growth through the 
fame of Bernard. At the time of his death 160 new cloisters had 
been planted. These were all furnished in the simplest style. In 
the cloister churches no ornaments were allowed, no paintings, 
except that of Christ. The crucifixes were of wood. The garments 
of the monks were severely plain. The monks were not allowed to 
hold any possessions. 

To the Swedish people Bernard is of interest mainly, because 
upon the request of king Sverker the Elder, and his queen he sent 
monks to Sweden. Their peaceful cloisters built in beautiful spots 
became homes for the pious and learned men who developed not 
only a quiet and successful work for higher culture, but also for 
introducing better modes of agriculture and gardening than before. 

57. Heterodox and Reformatory tendencies. A reforma- 
tory tendency seems to have extended through the 
Middle Ages and to have appeared in many forms. Many 
who urged such reform measures were extremists. They 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 147 

rose in arms against everything that seemed permanent 
in the Church and thus cast away the good with the 
evil. In contrast to the stress that the Roman Church 
laid upon outward measures, they would have none and 
repudiated even Baptism and the Lord's Supper. 

In the Orient there were many tendencies of this 
kind, e. g. the Paulicians of the seventh century. Seeds of 
their error were sown afterward in the West. In the 
eleventh century there arose several sects whose mem- 
bers were commonly known by way of reproach as the 
Cathari, i. e. the Pure, as they insisted that the Church 
should be an institution solely of the pure in heart. 
They were also called Albigenses after the city of Albi in 
France, which was regarded as the central point of 
these movements. 

Mild means to restore them to the Church were first 
used. Bernard and Dominic preached among them. 
When every attempt of this kind had failed, severer 
measures were used. Innocent III. caused a crusade to 
be preached against them, and a bloody war of 20 
years' duration (1209-1229) raged in southern France, 
devastating this populous and flourishing region, and 
nearly annihilating the sect of the Cathari. The rem- 
nant was wiped out by the inquisition. 

As the heretics always referred to the bible in sup- 
port of their teachings, the Church resorted to the un- 
wise measure of forbidding the laity to read the bible. 
The first decree of this .kind dates from Toulouse, 
France, 1229. 

A purer evangelical spirit was found among the Wal- 
denses, so called after Peter Waldus, a rich merchant of 
Lyons, France. By searching the Scriptures he had 
himself found the goodly pearl, and he was anxious 
that others should find it also. Therefore he spent his 



148 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

fortune in having the bible and other good books trans- 
lated into the vernacular and circulated among the peo- 
ple; the remainder of his wealth he distributed among 
the poor. In 1170 he founded a society called the "Poor 
men of Lyons" which should preach the gospel to the 
people in city and rural districts. 

It was not their intention from the beginning to 
separate from the Church. On the other hand they peti- 
tioned the Pope to confirm their society and sanction 
their translation of the bible. The Pope answered first 
by prohibiting their work, afterwards with the ban of 
the Church. A time of persecution followed their refusal 
to obey. Now their eyes were opened to the faults of 
the Church, and they began to denounce all doctrines 
and practices that had no support in the Scriptures. 
These were the highest authority for them in all mat- 
ters pertaining to faith. The Waldenses were diligent 
in reading the bible and endeavored to live according 
to its teachings, so that even their adversaries had to 
acknowledge their thorough bible knowledge and their 
Christian life. 

In southern France the Waldenses were most numer- 
ous and they suffered severely from the bloody Albigen- 
sian wars. Those wo survived these fled especially to 
the secluded valleys of Piedmont, where they found 
brethren in the faith. Here they established churches. 
From time to time they were harassed by cruel persecu- 
tions, yet a remnant has maintained itself to our times. 

58. Precursors of the Reformation. During the time of 
the Western schism, when many voices raised a clamor 
for a reformation of the Church in head and members, there 
arose in England, Bohemia, and elsewhere persons who 
urged a reformation of the heart. They were, however, un- 
able to carry through any thorough-going regeneration 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 



149 



of the Church, for the time was not yet ripe for this, 
furthermore they were to a serious degree tinged with 
the onesidedness of the age. In their opposition to the 
papal Church they were carried so far as to underrate 
the value of outward order and organization. In vari- 
ous ways they, however, prepared the way for the 
reformation, especially by emphasizing the Word of God 
as the only rule of faith and a holy life, and they may 
therefore just- 
ly be styled 
Precursors of the 
Reformation. 

a) The first 
one to whom 
this name has 
been applied is 
the English- 
man John Wyc- 
liffe, professor 
at the univer- 
sity of Oxford. 
He was a gift- 
ed man, of un- 
daunted cour- 
age and equal- 
ly zealous for 
religion and 

the fatherland. He made himself first felt as a skillful 
defender of English rights over and against the Pope. 
In this way he came into conflict with the bulwark of 
papacy, the mendicant monks. Later he attacked all 
the doctrines and practices of the Church (sale of indul- 
gence, saint- worship, pilgrimages, etc.) which he con- 
sidered to be contrary to the Word of God. He was, 




John Wycliffe. 



150 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 

however, unable fully to acquire biblical views. Thus 
for instance in his struggle against the doctrine of tran- 
substantiation he was driven to deny the real presence 
of the body and blood of Christ in the sacrament of the 
altar; and in opposition to the tendency of the Church 
to overestimate the value of human works, he accepted 
the predestination doctrines of St. Augustine. 

For the religious enlightenment of the people he caused 
a translation of the bible to be made from the vulgate 
into English, and sent out a large number of preachers 
to proclaim the Word of God in the vernacular. In this way 
there arose a powerful, spiritual movement which had 
numerous adherents, the co-called Lollards. It con- 
tinued in spite of persecutions up to the time of the 
Reformation and became a potent factor in aiding the 
cause of the latter movement in England. 

The mendicant monks did all in their power to silence 
their irrepressible opponent. They secured from the 
Pope several bulls condemning Wy cliff e and his views. 
Being protected by the king and parliament Wy cliff e 
escaped the fate that usually awaited heretics. He was, 
however, compelled to resign his professorship at Ox- 
ford and to withdraw to a pastorate in the country, 
where he was allowed to end his life in peace, in 1384. 

b) The powerful testimony of Wycliffe against the 
corruptions of the Church was felt even on the continent 
of Europe, especially in Bohemia. Thither Wycliffe's 
writings were brought (about 1400) by a Bohemian 
knight, Jerome of Prague, who had been in England 
and had there learned to know and to value them. 

At this time John Huss was engaged as professor in 
the university of Prague. Soon afterwards he became 
a preacher and presented the Word of God to the people 
in their own language with fiery ardor. Wycliffe's writ- 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 151 

ings led him to see the errors and abuses of the Church. 
He soon arose in determined opposition to the Pope's 
pretensions to infallibility, indulgences, and, in general, 
everything that was contrary to the Word of God. Re- 
garding the Church he held Wycliffe's view that it was 
composed only of those who were predestined to salva- 
tion. He, however, did not agree with Wy cliff e in regard 
to the Lord's Supper, but held to the view of the 
Church. 

The stand Huss had taken for the use of the mother- 
tongue at worship as well as his public spirit in general 
appealed to the patriotic feelings of the Bohemians. 
They had received the Latin language in their churches 
under protest, and they hailed with joy the attemptto 
restore the old conditions, when they could praise God 
in the congregation in their own tongue. Thus patriot- 
ism claimed a great share in the Hussite movement. 

For his courageous opposition to the false doctrines 
of the Church Huss was placed under the papal ban and 
cited to appear before the Church Council at Constance, 
1414. Supplied with a letter of safe-conduct from the 
Emperor Sigismund he appeared before the assembly, 
but as he was unwilling to recant, unless he was con- 
vinced of heresy by the Word of God, he was burned at 
the stake as an arch-heretic, in July, 141 5. His friend 
Jerome of Prague shared his fate a year later. 

When the death of their beloved teacher became 
known his adherents in Bohemia flew to arms. This 
war was not only a struggle for religious freedom but 
also an attempt to establish an independent Bohemian 
kingdom, and raged under the leadership of the brave 
but cruel Ziska with relentless fury. Several crusading 
armies suffered defeat. At last the Council of Basel 
succeeded in winning over a majority of them by the 



152 THE MEDLEVAL ERA 

following concessions: 1) Communion under both kinds; 

2) preaching of the pure gospel in the native tongue; 

3) strict discipline among the clergy; 4) renunciation by 
the clergy of church property. Those who accepted this 
were called Calixtines. The rest, known as Taborites, 
were afterwards vanquished, in 1434, and scattered 
throughout Bohemia and Moravia. Under the name of 
Bohemian Brethren they formed a few churches which 
with the Word of God as their strength maintained 
their existence, despite all persecutions, up to the time 
of the Reformation. 

John Huss was born about the year 1369 in the Bohemian village 
of Hussinecz, whence his name. His parents were wealthy people 
of Czechic birth. Having finished his studies at the University of 
Prague, he lectured there and in 1402—3 held the position of pres- 
ident of the faculty of theology. 

From childhood he was actuated by an earnest love of truth 
and at the beginning of his public career a spiritual awakening 
took place within him. To this circumstance contributed the 
study of Wycliffe's writings, and his ordination as priest. Shortly 
before this a rich burgher had established in Prague the Bethlehem 
chapel, where no mass was to be said, but the Word of God was 
to be preached to the people in the Bohemian tongue. In this 
chapel Huss was installed as preacher, in 1402. Here he had an 
ample opportunity to preach the Word of God to eager multitudes, 
and in this way he gained a deeper insight into the bible, and his 
life of faith became more mature. 

During the following years he worked for reforms within the 
Bohemian Church with the approbation of the archbishop of Prague 
who had confidence in him. By this archbishop he was appointed 
preacher at the Bohemian provincial synods, and as such he re- 
proved fearlessly and without regard to person the sins of the 
clergy. He succeeded in his efforts to put an end to a prevailing 
superstitious reverence for certain reputed relics. The people made 
pilgrimages in large numbers to a certain place, where the miracu- 
lous blood of Christ were shown on the consecrated host. Reports 
were circulated that miraculous cures had been wrought there. An 
investigation by Huss disclosed the fraud, and he published a paper 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 



153 



in which he showed that a Christian need not look for signs and 
wonders, but simply to hold fast to the Word of God. 

Conditions soon changed. A matter concerning the univer- 
sity caused a break. The university students were divided into 
four so-called nations, the Bohemian, Bavarian, Polish, and Saxon, 
of which, in matters of common concern, each had a vote. King 
Wenzel of Bohemia desired his country to maintain a neutral posi- 
tion in the papal schism and the Bohemian nation sided with him, but 
not the three others. 
On the advice of Huss 
the king issued an edict 
in 1409, giving the Bo- 
hemian nation three 
votes, and to the re- 
maining three together 
only one. The outcome 
was that more than a 
thousand teachers and 
students left Prague 
and founded a new 
university at Leipzig. 
Huss became rector of 
the purely Czechic uni- 
versity and stood now 
on the pinnacle of honor 
and power, esteemed 
and loved by a people 
whose national enthu- 
siasm he had awakened. 
The archbishop sup- 
porting the Pope at 
Rome became more and 
more bitterly opposed 

to him. A number of WycliftVs books were publicly burned 
amidst the ringing of church-bells and the chanting of "Te Deum". 
The preaching in the Bethlehem chapel was forbidden; yet Huss 
and his friends were not to be deterred. In spite of the prohibition, 
Huss continued to preach to ever increasing audiences. His ser- 
mons assumed a still bolder tone. Often his hearers responded 
with loud acclamations and this increased the determination on 
both sides. The archbishop caused the ban of excommunication to 




John Huss. 



154 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

be solemnly pronounced on Huss and an interdict upon the city of 
Prague. But to this no attention seemed to be paid. 

In the meantime the archbishop died, and there came a lull in 
the storm. Suddenly a new controversy arose. The Pope of Rome 
caused a crusade to be preached against the king of Naples, be- 
cause he protected one of the opposition Popes, and to raise funds 
for the war indulgence venders were sent out. Even in Prague 
indulgences were sold for money. This aroused bitter and angry 
feelings. Huss and his adherents spoke openly against the in- 
dulgence venders and even against the Pope himself. A public 
disputation was held at which it was publicly declared concerning 
this crusade that no Pope or bishop should ever henceforth seize 
the sword in the name of the Church, for Christ had said to Peter: 
"Put up thy sword into the sheath." If the Pope desired to van- 
quish his opponents, he ought to imitate Christ, pray for his ene- 
mies, and bless those who cursed him. Concerning indulgence the 
opinion was expressed, that forgiveness of sins presupposed contri- 
tion and repentance; in no case could it be procured for money. — 
The assertion that the Pope was infallible was not only false, but also 
implied blasphemy. — It was Jerome of Prague, the friend of Huss, 
and who like him was afterwards burned at Constance, who at this 
disputation carried away his audience by his fiery eloquence. 

Several unhappy street scenes now followed. The papal bulls 
concerning the war and indulgence were publicly burned with un- 
becoming ceremonies. The king prohibited under penalty of death 
all insult to the Pope and all railing against the papal bulls. Three 
young men, who in different churches had interrupted the indulgence 
preachers and asserted that indulgence was only falsehood and de- 
ceit, were executed. Their bodies were taken by a band of students 
and carried in solemn procession, accompanied by the singing of 
the martyr-hymn: "Isti sunt sancti", to the Bethlehem chapel, 
where with the assistance of Huss they were buried. 

There followed another bull of excommunication against Huss. 
This time by the Pope himself. This added to the excitement. The 
king even advised Huss to leave Prague for some time until the peo- 
ple became more quiet. Huss obeyed, and, in December 1412, he 
retired to the country, after having published a paper in which he 
appealed from the unjust bull of excommunication to Christ, the 
righteous judge. In the country he preached to large audiences 
and the excitement grew. During his absence from Prague he 
wrote his work: About the Church, in which he asserts that the 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 155 

Church is the communion of all who are predestined to salvation, 
and that Christ and not the Pope is the head of the universal Church. 

In the meantime the Council of Constance had convened, and 
the Emperor Sigismund wished that the case of Huss should be de- 
cided there. Upon the promise of safe-conduct from the Emperor, 
Huss undertook the journey and arrived at Constance, November 3, 
1414. Toward the end of the month he was arrested under some 
pretext, and Sigismund, soon arriving in the city, allowed tacitly, 
though not without displeasure, everything to take its course. 
Huss was kept in various prisons, some of them so dark and dingy 
that his health suffered severely. Several months he was kept 
confined in a castle outside of the city, separated from his friends, 
shackled during the day-time and during the night-time with his 
hands chained to the wall by the side of his bed. 

At last, June 5, 1415, he was summoned to a hearing before the 
Council, which had assembled in the large hall of the Franciscan 
cloister. His books were laid before him and he acknowledged them 
as his. He would willingly, said he, correct any thing in them that 
could be proved to be false. A few extracts were then read. When 
he attempted to defend himself, he was silenced with boiterous out- 
cries from several directions. When quiet was restored Huss said: 
"I had expected to find in this assembly more dignity, piety, and de- 
corum. ' ' All felt the force of the rebuke and the trial was postponed. 

Two days later the second examination took place in the 
presence of the Emperor. Being questioned as to his position to- 
ward Wycliff e, Huss answered that he held Wycliff e to be a good 
man and that he hoped some day to be where Wycliffe now was, 
but he disapproved of his attack on the doctrine of the Lord's 
Supper. When he was admonished in everything to yield his views 
to those of the Council, he answered maekly that he would willingly 
do so, if they would show him wherein he had erred. 

At the third and last examination, held the following day, the 
principal inquiry was as to his views about the Church, and he was 
subjected to many entangling questions, but without result. He 
now began to see that he could not escape death at the stake, and 
his letters from this time to his friends at home are full of parting 
thoughts and childlike submission to the will of God. 

During the four weeks that were left every effort was made to 
induce him to recant, but in vain. It is indicative of the greatness 
of Huss that he did not allow the views of a great Church Council 
to influence him, while at the same time he remained meek and 



156 THE MEDIAEVAL ERA 

lowly and cherished a spirit of forgiveness to all his enemies. He 
would rather be burned as a despised heretic than do violence to 
his conscience. 

July 6, 1415, his case was decided in the presence of the Emperor 
and the whole Council assembled in the cathedral. As an in- 
corrigible heretic he should be deposed from the ministry, be turned 
over to the secular authorities for punishment, and his books should 
be burned. Huss protested against the verdict, fell on his knees, 
prayed in silence for himself, then aloud for all his enemies. 

He was then arrayed in full priestly attire, and afterwards 
solemny disrobed, piece by piece, while the anathema was pro- 
nounced over him. Finally the words were uttered: "We deliver 
thy soul to the devil." "But I", said Hus, "deliver it to my Lord 
Jesus Christ." A paper cap two feet high was then placed upon 
his head, decorated with pictures of evil spirits and bearing the 
inscription Hceresiarcha (heretic chieftain). 

Now remained only the execution of the verdict by the secular 
authorities. Across the campus of the cathedral where his books 
were being burned — an act causing a smile to pass over his lips — 
he was taken to the place of execution, a field outside of the city. 
A great concourse of people and 800 armed men followed him on his 
last journey. When he arrived at the place he was disrobed, his 
hands tied behind his back, he was chained to a pole fastened 
securely in the ground. Wood and straw were then piled around 
him, reaching up to his breast. Even at the last minute he was 
asked if he would recant, to which he answered: "In the gospel 
truth I will die." Then the pile was set afire, and Huss began to 
sing with a loud voice: "O Christ, thou son of the living God, have 
mercy upon me." The next moment he was suffocated by the ris- 
ing flames. His ashes were thrown into the Rhine. 

Huss was no original, creative genius. As a thinker and writer 
he was inferior to Wycliffe. What characterized him was stead- 
fastness of purpose, purity of life, unselfishness, and true piety. 
By his undaunted courage, his enduring patience, his faithful con- 
fession of the gospel has won for him the admiration of posterity, 
while his tragic death was followed by important results. 

c) In the city of Florence in Italy there labored in 
the fifteenth century a reformer named Savonarola, a 
Dominican monk of fiery eloquence. His testimony 
was sustained by a truly evangelical spirit and he gave 



LIFE AND DOCTRINE 157 

evidence of prophetic inspiration. In his zeal to improve 
the morals he entered the path of political revolution. 
His adherents expelled the Medici who had usurped the 
government of the city, and restored the republic. Sa- 
vonarola wished to establish a theocratic state of the 
Old Testament type and himself assumed the leader- 
ship in the manner of the judges of Israel. By these 
measures he made many enemies, and when the Po*pe 
excommunicated him and laid the city under the inter- 
dict the favor of the people failed him. He was sen- 
tenced to death, and with a firm faith in his Saviour he 
died at the stake in the year 1498. 

d) In the Netherlands there had arisen during the 
fourteenth century an association known as the " Breth- 
ren of the Common Life. ' ' They aimed at piety, learned 
studies, especially the study of the classics, and also the 
instruction of the young. The association had many 
members who may be reckoned among the forerunners 
of the Reformation. The gifted and learned John Wessel 
distinguished himself by such a Christian insight and 
evangelical purity in his doctrines that Luther said of 
him: "Had I read Wessel earlier my adversaries might 
have believed that I had taken everything from him, so 
well do we agree." 

59. Humanism. In the fourteenth century there began 
a revival of the study of the ancient classics. This move- 
ment received a great impetus from the fall of Con- 
stantinople under the Ottoman Turks in 1453. A num- 
ber of learned Greeks now sought refuge in Italy, and 
here large crowds of eager students gathered about 
them. From this land of ancient culture this movement, 
known as Humanism, soon extended into the neighbor- 
ing lands to the north and west. 

Humanism was of great importance to human de- 



158 THE MEDLEVAL ERA 

velopment by whetting the intellect, ennobling the taste, and 
opening the eye for the purely human. Toward Christianity 
the Italian humanists assumed an indifferent and even 
an hostile attitude. In Germany conditions were dif- 
ferent. The German humanists had received a whole- 
some influence from the Brethren of the Common Life and 
showed more religious earnestness. The most renowned 
among them were Reuchlin, who opened the door to the 
original text of the Old Testament by his studies in the 
Hebrew language, and Erasmus of Rotterdam, who pub- 
lished an excellent edition of the Greek Testament. 

The Humanists prepared the way for the Reformation by 
furthering learned investigation and making possible a more 
thorough study of the bible in the original. Furthermore they 
mercilessly exposed many of the ivorst faults of the Mediaeval 
Church, especially the fruitlessness of scholasticism and 
the corruption of convent life. They were, however, too 
much interested in the humanities and too little in re- 
ligion to effect any regeneration of the Church. For 
this there was needed a strong personality, one who 
knew nothing higher than "Jesus Christ and him 
crucified". 

60. A Retrospect of the Middle Ages. When the Church 

changed its base from the Graeco-Roman to the Teutonic and 
Slavonic nations, she took possession of a more promising yet 
more difficult field of labor. The tribes among whom her work 
lay were still in a state of nature, but possessed of the richest 
endowments. The duty of the Church was to educate them to an 
appreciation and enjoyment of the blessings both of spiritual and 
material culture. The means lay on the one hand in Christianity, 
on the other in the elements of culture which had been handed 
down from the Graeco-Rornan age. It is in reality the Roman 
Church and the Teutonic people that during this period show a 
decided development and lay a foundation for a new and distinct 
culture. But this was effected only by a slow and gradual process 
with many progressive and retrogressive movements. 



RETROSPECT OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



159 



The Church sought to train the newly acquired nations prin- 
cipally by outward discipline. This may be said to have been neces- 
sary, for these peoples needed to go through a period of development 
corresponding to that of the Old Testament in its effect upon 
humanity in general. But it may also be said to have shown the 
weakness of the Church. Out of the aim the Church had in view 
there grew three remarkable forces which represent both the weak- 
ness and the strength of the Church. There was needed a strong 
Central Power which could sustain the respect of the Church as an 
educational force, hence the Papacy. Again the Legalism, which 




Insignia of the Papal See (Tiara, Stola, and Missal), 



began to manifest itslef in the early Church, now reached its full 
development. This tendency culminated in Monasticism. And 
finally the Ecclesiastical Authority in religious matters was com- 
pletely systematized and applied by Scholasticism. These three 
forces were on the increase during the first half of the Middle Ages 
and reached their culmination in the thirteenth century. Then fol- 
lowed decline and dissolution. 

The Middle Ages served as a transition period between ancient 
and modern culture, between the early and the reformed Church. 
Like all transition periods it presents the scene of a struggle be- 
tween contrasts. The struggle became the more intense as the 



160 THE MEDLEVAL ERA 

Teutonic race was one of unusual force. The creations of the 
Middle Ages are of gigantic proportions. The ignorance, the un- 
curbed lawlessness, the gross licentiousness, as well as the pro- 
foundest learning, the most unselfish abnegation, and the deepest 
piety are all characteristic of the age. By a series of reforms the 
Church sought to improve her condition, but as these were prin- 
cipally of an outward nature they left her real faults — hierarchical 
love ofpoicer, onticard show, and spiritual bondage — untouched. From 
the deep piety of more profound souls there grew gradually a clearer 
insight into the real spirit of Christianity. The freer spirit fostered 
by scientific study aided in loosening the fetters that had kept the 
religious spirit in bondage. Add to all this a growing dissatisfac- 
tion with the degenerated Church, and all the conditions prevail for 
hastening the time for a thorough-going Reformation. 



THE MODERN ERA. 



A. THE REFORMATION. 

a. The Reformation in Germany. 

61. Introduction. In few events in history has the hand of 
Providence been as clearly seen as in the Reformation. The time 
was ripe for it, and circumstances and conditions contributed in 
a remarkable manner toward this stupendous movement which 
effected so great a revolution in the Church, and, in its results, also 
in the political world. A growing discontent with the papal govern- 
ment, a lively perception of the corruptions of the Church, and a 
deep and universal yearning after reformation prevailed every- 
where. Literature and science furnished the means for a deeper 
knowledge of the Scriptures, and the invention of printing made 
possible a rapid dissemination of the Bible and the writings of the 
Reformers. A freer spirit began to breathe, especially in the 
cities. The disintegration of Germany into a large number of small 
states was also important, for social changes are more easily worked 
out in smaller than in larger states. Add to this a Pope as careless 
and indifferent as Leo X. ; a trafficker in indulgences as presumpt- 
uous and shameless as Tetzel; a prince as pious and upright, as 
distinguished and respected as Frederick the Wise; an Emperor like 
Charles V. , powerful and hostile enough to exert a purifying in- 
fluence upon the Reformation, but too much involved in political 
complications to suppress it; various relations and conflicting cir- 
cumstances tending to further the cause of the Reformation; a 
number of great and able men who gladly offered their services to 
the prosecution of the work; and finally at the right hour, in the 
fittest place, and with the most suitable surroundings, a man like 
Luther, especially endowed and trained for the great work, a man 
who, after having in his own inner experience passed through the 

11 



162 THE MODERN ERA 

essential features of the Reformation, was prepared to direct the 
new movement, shed light upon the intellectual ferment of the 
times, and point out the way and the goal for the restless aspira- 
tions of his day. The Reformation is, therefore, not the work of a 
few restless adventurers and fanatics, but the outcome of cen- 
turies of development, the product of many an anguished heart's 
yearning for salvation, and especially of the man who above all 
others was to gladden the world by restoring from oblivion the sav- 
ing truth: "Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be 
saved." 

62. Luther's training for the Reformation. Martin Luther 
was born at Eisleben on the 10th of November, 1483. 
He grew up in poverty and under severe discipline. 
Having completed his preparatory studies, he was en- 
rolled as a student at the age of 18 in the University of 
Erfurt, where he took the degree of Master of Arts, in 
1505. In the university library he found for the first 
time a complete copy of the Bible (in Latin), which he 
studied most diligently. He was soon aroused to a 
most earnest anxiety for his soul's salvation, and in his 
distress he took refuge as a monk in an Augustinian 
convent at Erfurt. But vain were his efforts to find 
peace with God through monastic asceticism. Day by 
day he was weighed down more and more by his sense 
of guilt. He was at last counseled by more experienced 
friends to believe the forgiveness of even actual sins. In 
this way of faith he was further led by the continued 
reading of the Bible and the works of pious church 
fathers and teachers. And yet it was some time before 
he attained a clear light and full conviction in regard 
to this important matter. 

In 1508 Luther was called as Professor of Philosophy 
to the University of Wittenberg, which had recently 
been established. Shortly afterwards (1510 or 1511) 
he was sent to Home on some business in the interest of 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 163 

his order. This journey was of the greatest importance 
to him, as he now had a chance to see with his own eyes 




Martin Luther. 



the deep religious and moral corruption which prevailed 
even in the very capital of Christendom. And though 
this experience did not lessen his respect for the Church, 



164 THE MODERN ERA 

ifc made him realize more fully than before the great 
need of a thorough reformation. 

After his return to Wittenberg, Luther was made a 
Doctor of Divinity, and was authorized to lecture on the 
Holy Scriptures. His preferences were the Psalms, the 
Romans, and the Galatians. He had himself found the 
way of salvation through faith, and, hence, could from 
his own experience testify to his hearers that man is 
justified by faith and not by the icorks of the Lavj. All his sub- 
sequent work for the reformation of the Church was 
permeated and supported by this great truth, which 
has been called the Material Principle of the Reformation. 

Martin Luther was the oldest of a large family. His parents 
were industrious and pious people, but with small means. They 
sought to bring up their children in the fear of God and strict 
morality. While Luther was still young, they moved from Eisleben 
to Mansfeld. Here their circumstances were gradually improved, 
and on account of his character and ability, his father, the miner 
Hans Luther, was elected a member of the town council. 

Here while yet a mere child, Luther was sent to the city school, 
which was conducted in the mediaeval style. The boy had already 
in his home become accustomed to strict discipline, but his treat- 
ment at school was barbarous in the extreme. He was for instance 
whipped fifteen times in one day without knowing really why. The 
school room was small and poorly ventilated, and the instruction of 
a very inferior sort. The progress was, therefore, very slow in- 
deed. Luther, however, learned to read and write, committed to 
memory the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer, and began 
the study of the Latin grammar. At the age of 14, he was sent to 
another school, at Magdeburg. This school was conducted by men 
who had grown up under the guidance of the Brethren of the Com- 
mon Life. Here the discipline was humane and the instruction 
good. Nevertheless, in the course of a year, we find Luther at 
Eisenach, where there was another good school. At both places the 
talented boy made rapid progress and raised great expectations. 

At Eisenach as also at Magdeburg, Luther, like other poor 
school boys, had to earn his bread by singing at the doors of the 
wealthier citizens. In this way he sang at the door of a rich 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 165 

burgher named Cotta, whose wife, Ursula Cotta, interested herself 
in the boy on account of his modest ways and sweet voice, and took 
him into her home. He could now spend the rest of his school-days 
without care for his daily bread. At her home, too, he acquired 
greater social refinement and had opportunities for developing his 
fine musical talents. All of which proved most valuable to him in 
his subsequent work. 

At Erfurt he devoted himself to the study of the classics and 
philosophy. The latter introduced him to the subtleties of scholasti- 
cism. Subsequently he learned to know how worthless this philos- 
ophy was; he was glad, however, that he had "by his own personal 
experience learned to know the wisdom of the universities so that 
his opponents could not accuse him of condemning what he did not 
know." 

As has already been said, Luther was brought up in the fear of 
God from his earliest childhood. He had especially learned to be 
diligent in prayer, and held that "to pray well is half the study." 

His devotion, however, did not afford him peace of conscience. 
"We were all", says he, "admonished to make satisfaction for our 
sins, for Christ would on the last day demand how we had atoned 
for our guilt, and how many good works we had done. ' ' His severe 
training had made him very conscientious, and he often held as a great 
sin that which was perfectly innocent; and, hence, he lived in continual 
anxiety. His diligent Scripture-reading afforded him no true light, 
for as yet there hung before his eyes the thick veil of human tradi- 
tions and notions which he had imbibed during his childhood and 
youth. His distress was increased by several fear-inspiring events. 
Thus while on a journey he was once overtaken by a fearful thun- 
derstorm, and the lightning struck close to him. In his terror he 
invoked the help of the saints and made a solemn vow that, if he 
escaped death, he would enter a monastery and become a monk. 
This vow he fulfilled shortly afterwards when he entered the 
Augustinian monastery at Erfurt. 

During his novitiate, Luther was assigned the most menial duties, 
such as sweeping the yard, going barefoot through the town, with 
a bag on his back, begging for his convent, etc. These duties he 
performed in the spirit of meekness and in the most faithful man- 
ner. Through the mediation of the university, he was, however, 
soon relieved of these menial services, and permitted to devote 
himself to his studies. The Bible was his dearest reading, but he 



166 THE MODERN ERA 

also mastered the works of the mystics and the schoolmen as well 
as of St. Augustine. The latter exerted a great influence upon his 
religious development. He was ever engaged in studies, prayer, 
fastings, vigils, etc. Referring to this period of his life, he writes 
later, "If ever a monk could obtain heaven through monkery, I 
should certainly have been entitled to it, for all who then knew me 
can testify that had it continued much longer, I should have tor- 
mented myself to death with watching, prayers, reading, and other 
labors." 

And yet his conscience found no peace. He realized in his own 
heart that no matter what he did, it was not sufficient to satisfy 
God's law. His superior, John Staupitz, the Vicar-General of the 
Augustinian order in Saxony, referred him, in his distress, to 
Christ, who "is an actual Saviour" and has "forgiveness for actual 
sins." An old brother monk also tried to comfort him with the 
words of the third Article of the Creed, ' 'I believe in the forgive- 
ness of sins", and expounded their meaning thus, "It is not enough 
to believe in a general way that men like Peter and Paul have the 
forgiveness of sins, for even the devils believe that; but it is God's 
will that each one should believe that just his own sins are forgiven 
him." By such words of comfort, Luther was led by way of faith 
to the forgiveness of sins and justification. After much distress 
and many conflicts, light began to shine into his troubled heart. 

In 1507 Luther was ordained a priest. With great trepidation 
he said his first mass. He came near running away from the altar 
when he, according to the ritual, was to pronounce the words, "I 
bring Thee, living and eternal God, this sacrifice." He was seized 
by the utmost terror when he felt that he stood without a mediator 
in the presence of the Majesty of Heaven, and was to address im- 
mediately the just and holy God. 

The commission to make a journey to Rome Luther received 
with gladness. When he arrived within sight of the city, he fell 
upon the earth and exclaimed, "Hail to thee, holy Rome!" During 
his 14 days' stay in Rome, he visited all the holy places, and as- 
cended on his knees the sacred stairs, which were said to have been 
brought from Pilate's judgment hall in Jerusalem to Rome. As 
yet he was not freed from the idea that such acts were meritorious 
before God. Nay, as he himself says, it grieved him that his parents 
were not already dead, as he might by some special act of devotion 
have released them from purgatory. 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 167 

In the mean time, however, he saw and heard many things in 
Rome, which grieved his sensitive soul. The most sacred things 
were openly turned into jests, and even the clergy were guilty of 
godless frivolities. Thus he learned from personal experience the 
degradation into which the capital of Christendom had fallen. He 
regarded his visit to Rome as a special dispensation of Providence, 
and would not have missed making it for a hundred thousand florins, 
for he might otherwise have felt some apprehension that he had 
been unjust to the Pope; but now he could testify of what he had 
seen and heard. 

It was with reluctance and in obedience to his superiors that 
Luther consented to take the degree of Doctor of Divinity. His 
colleague Carlstadt placed the doctor's hat on his head. Upon re- 
ceiving this new dignity, he was required to take an oath to study 
and teach the Word of God faithfully. In his subsequent work, he 
derived much comfort from this oath; when he saw all the commo- 
tion that his preaching had occasioned in Christendom, he felt that 
he had not of his own accord gone forth, but that he had been 
called and constrained to do it. 

From this time forth Luther's lectures and sermons were per- 
vaded by his newly acquired experience of justification by faith. 
There breathed through them all a freshness, which cleared the 
atmosphere from the close and oppressive vapors of scholastic 
quibbling. His audiences became in consequence more and more 
numerous, and he was already regarded as the chief ornament of 
the university to which he belonged. 

63. Luther's first step as a Reformer. There appeared 
as a trafficker in indulgences in northern Germany a 
Dominican monk, named John Tetzel, who in a more 
shameless manner than any one before him, persuaded 
people that indulgence granted unconditional forgive- 
ness of all sins. As a pastor with the care of souls 
upon his conscience, Luther felt constrained to oppose 
this evil, and, after having tried in vain to induce the 
church authorities to check the same, he nailed up, on 
the 31st of October 1517, on the door of the castle 
church at Wittenberg, 95 theses against the abuse of 
indulgences. The key-note of the theses was the conten- 



168 THE MODERN ERA 

tion that indulgences are not efficacious where there is 
no contrition of heart. The theses soon spread over all 
the Catholic world, and everywhere aroused a great 
sensation. Even the Pope, Leo X., finally felt it his 
duty to investigate Luther's case. Through a skillful 
agent, he succeeded in inducing Luther, who was in no- 
wise inclined to break with the Church, to promise 
silence provided his opponents would leave hhn in peace. 

Luther, however, was soon compelled to break the 
silence, as a professor from Ingolstadt, John Eck, chal- 
lenged him to a public disputation, which was held at 
Leipzig in 1519. At this disputation it became clear to 
Luther that Popes and Church Councils may err, and 
that the Bible is the only infallible rule in all spiritual 
matters. This principle of the sole and absolute au- 
thority of the Scriptures has been called the Formal Prin- 
ciple of the Reformation. 

After this disputation, Eck went to Rome and secured 
a papal bull excommunicating Luther. But Luther now 
took a bold step. On a blazing pile, outside the Elster 
gate of Wittenberg, he publicly burned the papal bull 
and a copy of the canon law (December 10, 1520). By 
this act Luther forever shut the way of his return to the 
Catholic Church. Shortly afterwards (January 1521) 
he was placed under the unconditional ban of the 
Church. 

In his sermon on indulgences Tetzel is said to have asserted that 
the red cross of the indulgences with the papal arms was as effica- 
cious as the cross of Christ; he (Tetzel) would not exchange places 
with St. Peter, for he had by his indulgences saved more souls than 
Peter by his preaching; when any one put money in the chest for a 
soul in purgatory, that soul would ascend to heaven as soon as the 
money clinked in the bottom of the chest; it was not necessary to 
repent or to do penance if one bought a letter of indulgence; these 
indulgences would cover sins not yet committed; etc. Many 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 169 

believed these falsehoods, and money flowed in abundantly. A part 
of this money went to the archbishop of Mainz, and with it he paid 
his pallium, said to have cost 26,000 gulden; another part was to be 
used for the completion of St. Peter's Church in Rome. 

The Elector of Saxony would not allow Tetzel to enter his terri- 
tory. But the latter sought to bless even the Saxons with his wares, 
and opened up his trade in the border town of Juterbogh, not far 
from Wittenberg. Many Wittenbergers went to him for indul- 
gences. Some of them belonged to Luther's flock. When they 
were admonished by Luther in the confessional to repent, they pro- 
duced their letters of indulgence and claimed that these secured 
them forgiveness without contrition. But Luther replied with the 
words of Scripture, "Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. " 
The deluded people were offended and complained to Tetzel that his 
indulgences were not considered efficacious. Tetzel, who was also a 
papal inquisitor, became furious, and built fires in the market place 
to show how he intended to deal with the enemies of indulgence. 

Luther, however, was not intimidated, but preached and wrote 
boldly against this traffic. He also turned to several of the digni- 
taries of the Church, and sought to induce them to put a stop to 
this evil. When these efforts failed, he composed his 95 theses and 
posted them without consulting any one about it. By this means he 
wished to bring about a disputation which should make plain the 
true meaning and force of indulgences; it was in nowise his inten- 
tion to condemn unconditionally the indulgence, or to oppose the 
Catholic Church. He rather regarded himself as a defender of the 
Church against those who for selfish gain abused her ordinances 
and made her odious to the people. Some of the more important 
theses may serve to illustrate his thoughts and intentions. 

Thesis 1. Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ in saying: "Repent 
ye", etc., intended that the whole life of believers should be peni- 
tence. 2. This word cannot be understood of sacramental penance, 
that is, of the confession and satisfaction which are performed 
under the ministry of priests. 5. The Pope has neither the will nor 
the power to remit any penalties, except those which he has imposed 
by his own authority, or by that of the canons. 6. The Pope has no 
power to remit any guilt, except by declaring and warranting it to 
have been remitted by God; or at most by remitting cases reserved 
for himself; in which cases, if his power were despised, guilt would 
certainly remain. *32. Those who believe that, through letters of 



170 THE MODERN ERA 

pardon, they are made sure of their own salvation, will be eternally- 
damned along with their teachers. 34. The grace conveyed by 
these pardons has respect only to the penalties of sacramental satis- 
faction, which are of human appointment. 37. Every true Chris- 
tian, whether living or dead, has a share in all the benefits of Christ 
and of the Church, through the grace of God, even without letters 
of pardon. 50. Christians should be taught that, if the Pope were 
acquainted with the exactions of the preachers of pardons, he would 
rather that St. Peter's Church were burnt to ashes, than that 
it should be built up with the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep. 
62. The true treasure of the Church is the Holy Gospel of the glory 
and grace of God. 71. He who speaks against the truth of apos- 
tolic pardons, let him be anathema and accursed. 72. But he, on 
the other hand, who exerts himself against the wontonness and 
license of speech of the preachers of pardons, let him be blessed. 
94. Christians should be exhorted to strive to follow Christ, their 
head, through pains, deaths, and hells. 95. And thus rather enter 
the kingdom of God through many tribulations, than by the consola- 
tion of a false peace fall into carnal security. 

By means of the printing-press these theses spread over Ger- 
many in a fortnight and practically over all the Catholic world in 
six weeks. Everywhere they attracted the greatest attention. 
Some were charmed and others embittered by them. It was the 
first whispering of the spirit which was soon to pass through the 
Church and shake it in its decayed seams and joints. Luther had 
given expression to a part of what thousands of anxious hearts had 
felt. But much more must be said. Having once made himself the 
mouth-piece of his times, he could not keep silent until he had given 
full expression to the unsatisfied wants which during centuries had 
oppressed pious and sincere hearts. 

On the papal chair sat Leo X. , of the powerful Medici family, a 
cultured man of the world, deeply interested in art and science, but 
without heart or feeling for the Church. From his childhood he 
had been destined for holy orders that he might without trouble 
obtain wealth, power, and honor. At the age of seven he was or- 
dained a priest, the following year he was made an archbishop, and 
before he had reached his thirteenth year he was created cardinal. 
This was not the man to comprehend what was now at issue. He 
did, indeed, take knowledge of the 95 theses, but regarded the 
controversy arising from them as an ordinary monkish squabble. 
In the meantime, however, he was induced by his counselors to 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 171 

summon Luther to Rome to answer for his theses. But through 
the mediation of Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, the 
summons was modified, and Luther was to meet the papal legate, 
cardinal Cajetan, at Augsburg. The legate at first received the 
humble monk with friendly condescension, and simply demanded 
that he should recant. But when Luther appealed to the Scriptures 
and produced unanswerable arguments for his statements, the 
cardinal lost his temper and cried: "Depart, and do not come into 
my presence again, unless you are willing to recant." Luther 
obeyed the order, and secretly left Augsburg, as he could no longer 
-feel secure there. 

In Rome it was felt that the legate had but poorly accomplished 
his mission. As it was of importance to the Pope to maintain 
friendly relations with Frederick the Wise, a new agent was sent 
out, the accomplished papal chamberlain Carl von Miltitz. He ad- 
ministered so sharp a rebuke to Tetzel for his shameless proceed- 
ings that the unhappy offender from shame and terror sought refuge 
in a convent, where he shortly afterwards died. On the other hand 
he received Luther, whom he had summoned to meet him at Alten- 
berg, in January 1519, with extreme kindness, praised his learning 
and genius, and declared that he would not dare with a force of 
5,000 armed men to attempt to carry him to Rome, for he had found 
everywhere on his journey that where one spoke for the Pope three 
spoke for Luther. Such flattery, it is true, made no impression on 
a man of Luther's disposition, still the latter promised to remain 
silent, if his opponents would leave him in peace. 

His opponents, however, took care that the Reformation should 
not be stifled to death by silence. Professor John Eck of Ingolstadt, 
a man of talent, but of puerile vanity, sought to make himself a 
name as an unrivaled debater, and for this purpose had held public 
disputations at several universities. He now decided to challenge 
the Wittenberg professors. In the first place he directed his chal. 
lenge to Luther's colleague Carlstadt, but aimed in reality at a 
contest with Luther, who also took up the gauntlet thus thrown 
down. 

The disputation in Leipzig lasted three weeks. During the first 
week Eck and Carlstadt disputed about grace and free-will, Eck 
defending the Semi-Pelagian and Carlstadt the Augustinian doc- 
trine. Then Luther entered the contest. Regarding free-will he 
sided with Carlstadt. The disputation extended also to the primacy 
of the Pope, purgatory, repentance, and indulgences. Luther 



172 THE MODERN ERA 

appealed to the Scriptures, and Eck to tradition. On any common 
premises the two contestants could not agree, and, hence, they 
arrived at no definite results. But here the defenders of the old 
system, and the champions of the Reformation had a chance to 
learn to know each other better. Eck discovered that Luther's views 
coincided with those held by the Bohemian martyr John Huss. And 
though it had never before occurred to Luther that the Church had 
erred in its action concerning Huss, he now hazzarded the assertion 
that not all the Hussite doctrines were heretical. He also accused 
Eck of "shunning the Bible as the devil does the Cross." From 
this time forth he became firmly convinced that in all religious 
questions one must rest upon the Bible alone. 

Not only theologians and students, but also a large number of 
laymen and even princes had attended the disputation at Leipzig 
and carefully followed the proceedings. As a result some had be- 
come all the more firmly rooted in their Catholic faith. To this 
number belonged Duke George of Saxony, who henceforth became 
Luther's avowed enemy. Others again had their hearts more fully 
opened to the truth, and it was particularly here that the intimate 
friendship was formed between Luther and Melanchthon, which 
united them for life. 

Luther continued his labors, in speech and writing, along the 
lines already mapped out. Of especial importance were three 
writings, all published in 1520. The first bore the title, ' 'To his 
Imperial Majesty and the Christian Nobility of the German Nation 
on the Improvement of the Christian Condition." In a powerful 
and eloquent manner he shows how the Pope had tyrannized over 
all Christendom and especially over Germany by his un-Christian 
rules and laws and his unscrupulous exactions. He bombards the 
three paper walls behind which the Pope had hitherto entrenched 
himself, namely the claims that the spiritual is superior to the civil 
power, that the Pope alone has the right to interpret Scripture, 
and to summon Ecumenical Councils. He further points out the 
outward means of throwing off the papal yoke, and seeks to interest 
even the secular princes in the Reformation of the Church. In his 
second work, "On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church", he 
exposes the errors of the Romish doctrines of the Sacraments. And 
as nearly all the false doctrines and practices of the papal Church 
were connected with this question, he had occasion to present a 
complete criticism of the whole Roman system of doctrines. Both 
of these works expressed what thousands of hearts thought and felt, 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 173 

and, hence, they spread rapidly, and were everywhere hailed with 
acclamations of joy. To the papal party they were like salt in 
a fresh wound and called forth from them a cry of pain and much 
abuse. 

But Luther spoke not only words of warfare, but also of peace. 
The latter he did in his third work, "On the Freedom of a Chris- 
tian." This is a work of edification and instruction, glowing with 
ardor and fervency, and written in a truly evangelical spirit and 
power. 

In the meantime Dr. Eck was laboring to silence his trouble- 
some opponent by the arm of force. The result of his efforts was 
the papal bull of excommunication. Armed with this, he hastened 
into Germany. He did not, however, meet with the reception that 
he had expected and desired. In various places the bishops dared 
not publish the bull for fear of the people. In Leipzig and Erfurt 
the students prevented it. It was evident that the need of a 
Reformation was universally felt, and the man who had so clearly 
seen and fearlessly exposed the corruptions of the Church was 
everywhere regarded with admiration and love. And Luther's bold 
deed in burning the papal bull was preceded and followed by similar 
acts in various places. But the hatred of the papal party also in- 
creased, and the many piles on which Luther's works were burned 
showed plainly what fate was contemplated for the bold author 
himself. 

64. Melanchthon. Among Luther's many friends and 
fellow-workers no one was of greater importance to the 
Keformation than Melanchthon. He had early acquired 
a thorough humanistic education, and at the age of 2L 
(1518) w T as appointed Professor of Greek in the Uni- 
versity of Wittenberg. He soon attached himself with 
the warmest devotion to Luther, who in turn regarded 
his new friend as an invaluable ally. For learning 
Melanchthon was no doubt the greatest genius of his 
day, and his systematic comprehension and presenta- 
tion of the new doctrine gave it from the beginning a 
high degree of clearness and solidity. As early as 1521, 
he published the first work on Lutheran Dogmatics 



174 THE MODERN ERA 

(Loci Communes Kerum Theologicarum). But timid 
and unpractical, he needed the support of Luther's 
powerful spirit, and only in union with the great 
Reformer did he himself become the great master 
which he has ever been in the Lutheran Church. He 
died in 1560. 

Philip Melanchthon was the son of a wealthy armorer named 
George Schwarzerd, and was born February 16, 1497, in a little 
Palatine town which now belongs to Baden. He received an earnest, 
religious training in the home, and manifested in his ear lest years 
remarkable talents for study. As a child he was somewhat afflicted 
with stammering, but by persistent efforts he succeeded in over- 
coming this natural defect, so that in later life it was hardly 
perceptible. 

Upon the father's death, in 1507, young Philip was sent to a 
Latin school, where he made remarkable progress, especially in the 
classics. Here he met his kinsman, the celebrated John Reuchlin, 
who received the boy with hearty good-will, and in every way 
assisted him in his studies. He also induced him, according to the 
custom of his times, to translate his name, Schwarzerd, into the 
Greek Melanchthon. He then studied some years in the Universities 
of Heidelberg and Tubingen, and at the last named place secured 
for himself at the early age of 17 the Master's degree. He then 
began the study of theology. Scholastic philosophy had but little 
charm for him, but he studied with great eagerness the works of 
the church fathers and the New Testament in the original text; 
and was even at this time persuaded in his own mind that Bible 
Christianity was something different from the scholastic theology 
of the Church. 

On the recommendation of Reuchlin, he was appointed Profes- 
sor of Greek in the University of Wittenberg, in 1518. Devoted 
to Humanism he believed at first — like Erasmus of Rotterdam — 
that the Church could be reformed through the means of the New 
Learning, which was now nourishing everywhere. He lectured 
with great success on Homer and also on the Greek text of the New 
Testament. His hearers often numbered two thousand. But through 
Luther, with whom he soon entered upon terms of intimate friend- 
ship, he was led to a deeper knowledge of the Scriptures, and soon 
realized that learning alone could not awaken new life in the 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 



175 



Church. After the disputation of Leipzig, which he attended, he 
espoused the cause of the Reformation as a champion of the first 
rank. He devoted himself more and more to theology, and in 1526 




Y 



\S' r L6 , 

1VENTIS *OTVIT<DVKERIVS- ORA-PHillPPI 
iWENTEM^NON -POTVIT-PiNGERE'DO CTA 
JWANVS 




Philip Melanchthon. 



assumed the duties of a professor's chair in this branch of learning. 
He had already begun to assist Luther in his work of translating 
the Bible, and had published commentaries on various books of the 



176 THE MODERN ERA 

Bible, especially those of the New Testament. By his "Loci Com- 
munes" he had already laid the foundation for Lutheran Dogmatics. 

Together with other prominent men he took an active part in 
the visitations instituted by Luther in the Electorate of Saxony, 
and was appointed to prepare plans for a new church and school 
organization for the Electorate. The work was so well done that 
this organization served as a model for other Lutheran states. 

Melanchthon accompanied his Elector to the Diet of Spires, in 
1529, and was also present at the Religious Conference held the 
same year at Marburg, though he went there reluctantly as he felt 
that nothing could come from it. During the debate he said but 
little; he was, however, no more inclined to fraternize with the 
Swiss than was Luther himself. He especially deprecated their 
mixing of the Reformation with politics, and Zwingli's efforts to 
unite religion and philosophy. 

To Melanchthon fell the principal part of the work of preparing 
the Confession, which was to be presented to the Emperor and the 
Estates at the Diet of Augsburg, in 1530. This task he performed 
with great care, in constant correspondence with Luther, who, 
being excommunicated and outlawed, could not be present at Augs- 
burg. He was very particular with the wording of the confession, 
and carefully weighed each word, and furthermore submitted each 
article to a careful examination by the Lutheran theologians present 
at the Diet. His clear, simple, and definite confession, combining 
a calm, peaceful tone with a firm evangelical position, reflects en- 
during credit upon its author. By this writing and the one pub- 
lished in its defence in 1531, Melanchthon reached the zenith of his 
fame. He had long been called the "Teacher of Germany" (Prae- 
ceptor Germanise) and now he had merited the title in a still higher 
degree. 

Though he was offered honorable positions as professor at 
other universities, he remained faithfully at Wittenberg. His in- 
timate friendship with Luther still continued. The one possessed 
in a rich measure the qualities of mind and heart in which the 
other was deficient, they, therefore, needed each other, lest each 
by himself should become narrow and one-sided. Their various 
gifts have been happily described by Luther in these words, "I am 
rough, boisterous, stormy, and altogether warlike. I am born to 
fight against innumerable monsters and devils. I must remove 
stumps and stones, cut away thistles and thorns, and clear the wild 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 177 

forests; but Master Philippus comes along softly and gently, sow- 
ing and watering with joy, according to the gifts which God has 
abundantly bestowed upon him." 

Later in life, however, the relation between the two great men 
became less cordial, although they never came to an open rupture, 
but ever held each other in the highest esteem. The causes of the 
incipient coldness between them were various, partly of a private 
nature, but particularly their different views regarding the Sacra- 
ment of the Lord's Supper. Luther felt that Melanchthon was not 
positive enough, and that he was too ready to compromise with the 
Reformed views. 

Luther's death (1546) was a severe blow to Melanchthon. He 
missed the friend and counselor to whom he had ever turned in 
difficult emergencies. He felt too the great loss which the Evan- 
gelical Church had sustained in the death of its chief leader. Then 
too there came the Schmalcaldic War, which drove him into exile. 
And later, when the University was resumed, he regarded it his 
duty to return to Wittenberg, and serve the new Elector Maurice, 
though this was criticised by many who had removed to Jena, 
where John Frederick and his sons had founded a new university. 

A time of trouble and suffering now began for Melanchthon. 
He was involved in a number of doctrinal controversies and other 
difficulties for which he had neither taste nor talent, and which he 
would gladly have escaped. But circumstances forced him to the 
front as the champion of Evangelical doctrines. His sensitive mind 
was embittered by the fierce and passionate attacks directed against 
him by the partisans of rigid Lutheranism. The latter accused 
him and his disciples of heresy and apostasy from Lutheran doc- 
trines. With great patience and self-control he endured this rabies 
theologorum tfury of the theologians), from which he dared to hope 
for escape only in death. On the other hand it must be admitted 
that his attitude was often vacillating, and that he, at times, was 
too yielding both to the Catholics and the Reformed. In this way 
he often, though unintentionally, gave occasion to these unfortun- 
ate contentions, which caused exultation among the enemies of the 
Evangelical Church, and in which many a noble faculty was wasted 
which could have been employed in a better cause. 

Melanchthon would never accept ordination and never preached 
in any church, but during the last ten or twelve years of his life, 
he expounded the lesson-text for the day on Sundays and other 
holy days in his lecture-room, and these devotional services were 

12 



178 THE MODERN ERA 

always wpII attended, especially by the students. He was married 
in 1520, and had a full share of both the joys and the sorrows of 
domestic life. His health was always delicate, and several times 
he was sick nigh unto death. On a journey to Leipzig, in March 
1560, he contracted a severe cold, and died in April the same year, 
quietly and peacefully, in full reliance upon the Lord whom he had 
always with heart and mouth praised and adored. His body was 
laid to rest beside Luther's in the Castle Church of Wittenberg. 

65. Luther at Worms and Wartburg. In the beginning 
of 1521 an Imperial Diet was convened at Worms. To 
this Luther was summoned to defend his doctrine. In 
spite of the warnings of friends and the cunning efforts 
of enemies to prevent him, Luther appeared at the Diet 
under an imperial safe-conduct. When asked whether 
he would retract the contents of his books, he answered 
that he could not retract anything unless he were con- 
vinced by the Word of God or by clear arguments, as 
his conscience was bound in the Word of God, and then 
added these words, "Here I stand, I can not do other- 
wise. God help me. Amen." 

This frank and fearless answer made a favorable im- 
pression on a large part of the assembly. Nevertheless 
the papal party triumphed, and when Luther's case was 
decided, a month later, he and all his adherents were 
placed under the ban of the Empire (May 1521). 

Luther was permitted to leave Worms unmolested. 
But on his way home, he was suddenly attacked by a 
company of armed horsemen and carried off as a pris- 
oner to the castle of the Wartburg. This is supposed to 
have happened through the contrivance of Luther's 
prince, the Elector of Saxony, Frederick the Wise, who 
in this way would rescue him from the first storm. Lu- 
ther spent ten months at the Wartburg. It was a period 
of quiet, during which he could carefully study and con- 
sider the great work which he had begun. This forms a 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 179 

turning-point in Luther's work: from this time forth he 
was as zealous in his efforts to build up the Church on 
the true evangelical foundation as he had before been in 
tearing down the false doctrines and institutions of 
Catholicism. The beginning of this constructive work 
was the translation of the Bible into his mother-tongue. 
He found time at the Wartburg to complete the transla- 
tion of the New Testament, which was published in 
1522. The Old Testament he translated afterwards 
with the assistance of several others, and the whole 
Bible was finally published in the German language in 
1534. Thus was laid the best foundation for the re- 
generation of the Church. 

The Catholic leaders were not satisfied with having Luther 
summoned before the Diet of Worms. They held that he as already 
under the papal ban was irrevocably condemned, and that he should, 
therefore, not be heard any further, but simply be burned. But 
Luther's prince, Frederick the Wise, and a few other German 
princes succeeded in inducing the Emperor to summon Luther to 
appear before the Diet, and to furnish him with a safe-conduct, 
that is a promise that he might come to the Diet and return to his 
home under the protection of the Emperor and the state. In spite 
of the fact that Luther was under the papal ban he is addressed in 
the opening of the imperial summons as ' 'honorable, well-beloved, 
and pious." 

On this imperial call, Luther boldly set out, not, indeed, unmind- 
ful of the dangers he incurred. He bade farewell to his friends as 
if it had been for the last time. In many cities along the way he 
was made the object of public honors. Some warned him against 
going to Worms and referred to the terrifying example of John 
Huss. To them he replied: ' 'Though they kindle a fire from Wit- 
tenberg to Worms that blazes to heaven, yet when summoned I 
will go, and in God's name enter the jaws of Behemoth (Job 40: 10) 
between his great teeth, and confess Christ and let him reign." 
The Emperor's confessor sought to induce him to take refuge in a 
neighboring castle and from that retreat to conduct his case at 
Worms. But Luther did not permit himself to fall into the snare. 
On another occasion one of his friends sent to warn him against the 



180 THE MODERN ERA 

dangers that threatened him at the Diet. But Luther replied, 
"Though there be as many devils in Worms, as tiles on the roofs, 
yet will I enter." Even Luther himself afterwards wondered at 
his own boldness. Thus did the Lord strengthen his servant that 
he did not falter at this critical moment. It now behooved him to 
make a good confession before many witnesses, and who can 
estimate the great influence Luther's appearance at Worms had 
upon the further development of the Reformation? 

On the 16th of April Luther entered Worms. On his way through 
the city he was surrounded by large crowds of people, all anxious 
to see this remarkable man who had dared to defy the Pope and all 
the world. The Catholic leaders now sought to prevent Luther's 
appearing before the Diet, and to persuade the Emperor that it was 
not necessary for him to keep his oath to a heretic. But to all such 
counsels the Emperor gave the worthy reply, "What one has prom- 
ised one must keep. ' ' 

Thus on the day after his arrival Luther was summoned to ap- 
pear before this august assembly, composed of the Emperor, the 
Electors of the Empire, and large numbers of other spiritual and 
temporal lords and princes. Through gardens and alleys he was 
brought to the hall, for the streets were all overcrowded with masses 
of curious people. As he was about to enter the hall, the famous 
warrior George von Freundsberg tapped him on the shoulder and 
said, "My poor monk, thou hast a fight before thee to-day, such as 
neither I nor any of my comrades in arms have ever had in our 
hottest battles, but if thou art sure of the justice of thy cause, 
then go forward in the name of God, and be of good courage; God 
will not forsake thee." On a table in front of the Emperor lay 
copies of Luther's books. Two questions were put to him: "Did he 
acknowledge these books as his, and would he retract what he had 
written in them. ' ' The first of these questions he answered in the 
affirmative after the titles of the books had been read to him. Re- 
garding the second question he asked for time for consideration 
that he might not act imprudently nor offend against the Word of 
God. This request was granted and the case was postponed until 
the next day. 

At four o'clock in the afternoon of that day, the 18th of April, 
Luther was again brought before the Diet, but had to wait for a 
hearing until six o'clock. Calmly and modestly but with great 
firmness he now made his reply. He divided his books into three 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 181 

classes. Some were written for Christian edification and them 
even his opponents had not condemned. In others he had attacked 
the false doctrines of the Papacy. These he could not retract, 
because by so doing he would endorse the papal tyranny and wicked- 
ness. And finally in the third class of his books he had written 
against individuals who had undertaken to defend that tyranny. 
Against these he admitted that he had been more vehement than 
was becoming, for he did not claim to be a saint. And yet even 
these writings he could not retract, for he would then appear to 
sanction this system of tyranny, and the unhappy people, would be 
oppressed more unmercifully than ever. "But", he added, "as I 
am but a man and not God, I can defend my books only in the way 
that my Lord Jesus Christ did with his doctrine when he said, 'If I 
have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil'. I therefore beg by the 
grace of God that your Imperial Majesty and your Graces or who- 
soever can, be he of high or low degree, would bear such witness 
and convince me by the writings of the Evangelists and Prophets. 
And when I have been thus convinced I shall be perfectly willing 
and ready to retract all errors, and be the first one to throw my 
books into the fire. ' ' 

This statement was first made by Luther in German, and then 
in spite of the oppressive heat • he repeated it with equal force in 
Latin.* But his opponents were not satisfied. They demanded that 
he give a plain answer, "without horns", whether he would 
retract or not. 

To this Luther replied, "Since your Imperial Majesty and your 
Graces demand a plain answer, I will give one that has neither 
horns nor teeth. Unless I be refuted by Scriptural testimonies, or 
by clear arguments (for I believe neither the Pope nor the councils 
alone, since it is clear that they have often erred and contradicted 
themselves) I am convinced by the passages of Scripture which I 
have cited, my conscience is bound in the Word of God, and I can 
not and I will not retract anything, since it is unsafe and dangerous 
to do anything against the conscience. Here I stand. I can not 
do otherwise. God help me. Amen." 

Thus was the great Confession made, and evangelical truth had 
triumphed. Though Luther appeared to stand alone against a 
powerful party, yet was he strong, for God was with him. By the 
grace of God he had been freed from the bondage of human 



* This order is reversed by many. See Kostlin, Jacobs, and others. 



182 THE MODERN ERA 

tradition and ordinances, and was bound only by the Word of God 
and his own conscience. For this freedom thousands were longing, 
and all were strengthened and encouraged in their seeking after 
truth by Luther's bold confession and unflinching firmness. 

Subsequent efforts to induce Luther to recant proved unsuccess- 
ful. That his address before the Diet made a deep impression on 
many was shown by the numerous visits he received from princes, 
counts, lords, knights, and nobles, lay and clerical, and even from 
the common people. The papal party strained every nerve to in- 
duce the various Estates of the Empire to adopt resolutions hostile 
to Luther. As they feared that this could not be accomplished im- 
mediately, especially as the Estates themselves had presented a 
complaint of over 100 articles against papal usurpations, they bent 
their efforts towards postponing Luther's case. The matter was 
not decided before the 26th of May, when most of the members 
had left the Diet. Luther was then declared an outlaw; no one was 
to receive him or shelter him any longer, but wherever found he 
was to be seized and handed over to the Emperor. This imperial 
document was, however, dated the 8th of May, so that it might 
appear to have been passed while the members were all there. 

Translations of the Bible had, indeed, been made before Luther's 
day, but they were all made from the Vulgate version, which was 
very faulty, and the German used in them was heavy and difficult 
to read so that they could not become a possession of the German 
people. Luther's translation on the other hand was made from the 
original text, and his language was vigorous and popular, and, 
hence, his Bible soon became a precious treasure to both high and 
low, Like all other human efforts it has of course its defects, but 
its merits are nevertheless so overbalancing that as yet it has been 
surpassed by none and equaled by few. 

Luther's Bible is important not only from a religious, but from 
a literary and social point of view, for by it the High German 
language was stereotyped and became the literary language of 
Germany. 

66. Reformation and Fanaticism. During Luther's so- 
journ at the Wartburg some of his followers in Witten- 
berg, especially his colleague Carlstadt, began to adopt 
violent measures for bringing about a more speedy 
reform in church matters. Kestless spirits as they were, 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 183 

they regarded Luther altogether too slow and cautious. 
While the latter labored to affect an inward conviction 
and hoped that after the people had been thus enlight- 
ened a gradual reform could be made in the external 
regulations of the Church to make them conform more 
nearly to the demands of biblical Christianity, Carlstadt 
and his adherents sought to bring about a speedy out- 
ward transformation of the Church and supposed that 
in this way the desired end could be accomplished. 
With a large following of excited people, they entered the 
churches and tore down images and altars. The Latin 
mass was abolished, the communion administered in 
both kinds, and the services as a w r hole were conducted 
in the mother-tongue. Though many of these changes 
were in themselves justifiable and were afterwards re- 
tained, yet their violent introduction caused great dis- 
turbance in many minds. This disturbance was height- 
ened still more by the arrival of certain exiles from 
Zwickau, who claimed the gift of prophecy. They re- 
jected infant baptism and required adults to be baptized 
even though they had been baptized as children. Hence, 
they were known as Anabaptists. They also depreciated 
the authority of the Scriptures, and claimed for every 
regenerate person the direct guidance and illumination 
of the Holy Spirit. 

There w r as no one in Wittenberg capable of putting 
down this storm, which threatened to divert the 
reformation into dangerous by-paths. Luther now felt 
it his duty to come out from his hiding-place and appear 
upon the scene. He came accordingly to Wittenberg 
and for eight days in succession preached against these 
abuses. His powerful words quieted the disturbed 
minds, the Zwickau prophets withdrew, and order was 
restored. 



184 THE MODERN ERA 

But new disturbances soon arose in other places. 
The peasants of Germany, groaning under an oppressive 
servitude, caught at the words of Luther regarding 
Christian liberty, and believed that here they found 
justification for an uprising even against their worldly 
oppressors. The Zwickau prophets encouraged the 
movement, and in Suabia and Thuringia there was a 
general uprising of the peasants. In vain did Luther 
urge the parties to a peaceable settlement by mutual 
compromises. Neither party would listen to him, and 
the peasants rendered themselves guilty of the cruelest 
acts of violence. After many bloody battles the princes 
finally succeeded in reducing the wild masses (1525), 
and then wreaked a terrible vengeance upon the un- 
happy and deluded peasants. 

A fine example of the courage and faith which filled Luther's 
heart whenever he felt that he was doing the Lord's work, is the 
letter which he wrote on the way to Wittenberg to inform his 
Elector that he had left Wartburg and to explain why against his 
Elector's wishes he had taken this step. Among other things he 
writes: "This I have written in order that your Electoral Grace 
may know that I come to Wittenberg under a far higher protector- 
ate than the Elector's. I have no thought of so much as asking the 
protection of your Grace. Indeed, I think I am in a position to give 
more potection to your Grace than you can to me. If I knew that 
your Grace could and would protect me, I would not come. In this 
business no sword can counsel or help. God must help in this work 
alone, without human aid. In this case, therefore, he whose faith 
is strongest can best protect." And that Luther was thoroughly 
in earnest when he thus placed himself solely under God's protec- 
tion is manifest from the advice which he gives the Elector further 
on in the letter, namely, that he should ' 'hold the door open and 
give the enemy free way if they should come to take me." 

It was not in vain that Luther trusted in the Lord, for he was 
endowed with a wonderful power. The main thought in his eight 
sermons against the fanatics at Wittenberg was that the essential 
fact in Christianity is faith in the Son of God, but that every Chris- 
tian ought with love and patience to bear with the brethren if they 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 185 

could not at once free themselves from the old forms and ordi- 
nances. By these abrupt changes one did violence to the con- 
sciences of the weak. Let the Word be preached, and let it do its 
work in the hearts of men, and the external changes will come of 
themselves. 

By the suppression of the peasants' uprising the Anabaptists 
were for a time checked in their more public efforts, but they 
continued in a secret way to gain adherents partly in Switzerland 
and more especially in the Netherlands. They soon felt themselves 
strong enough to resume their efforts in Germany. As a field for 
their labors they selected the Westphalian city of Minister, which 
had lately accepted the Reformation. Here affairs were as yet in 
an unsettled state, and, hence, the Anabaptist preachers succeeded 
in causing great disturbance throughout the city. They also drew 
to the city a large part of the worthless elements of the surround- 
ing country and with their help completely revolutionized the city 
government. The more conservative of the inhabitants were forced 
to move away. With the help of neighboring princes the bishop of 
Miinster now raised an army and surrounded the city. But this 
only incited the Anabaptists to greater violence. They destroyed 
all images, and burned all books, except the Bible. Community of 
goods was introduced, and equality before the law was proclaimed. 
Common tables were set, and during meals the Bible was publicly 
read. But of the divine Word only such portions were appropriated 
as appealed to the senses and their unbridled passions. A perfect 
reign of terror was established, and all who dared oppose the new 
order were hurried without mercy to the block. 

To begin with a certain baker, Matthias of Haarlem, led the 
movement, but after his death in an attack upon the besiegers, the 
26 year-old John Bockhold, a tailor from Leyden, came forward as 
the leader. Before long a certain goldsmith declared to the multi- 
tude assembled in the market-place that God had revealed to him 
that John of Leyden should again set up the throne of David — a 
beginning to the millennium — and rule over the whole world. He 
was to exterminate all the ungodly and destroy all kings and 
princes, and the government was to be wholly in the hands of the 
believers. Immediately John fell upon his knees and declared that 
he had himself had the same revelation, but out of modesty had 
refrained from speaking about it. He was now crowned king and 
proceeded to surround himself with as much royal splendor as 
possible. Whenever he appeared in public he was followed by 



186 THE MODERN ERA 

attendants carrying a copy of the Bible, a sword, and a crown. 
Whosoever would then refuse to bow the knee before him was be- 
headed without mercy. Three times a week he would sit in judg- 
ment upon a throne erected in the market-place. His executioner 
Knipperdolling — remembered from the Anabaptist disturbances in 
Stockholm 1524 — stood at his side, ready to carry out his sentences, 
which were usually death penalties. Polygamy was introduced, 
John himself taking no less than seventeen wives. When one of 
them dared to doubt that this work was of God, he beheaded her 
with his own hand, and then in wild ecstasy danced together with 
the people around her dead body, while the hymn, "All glory be to 
God on high", was being sung. For the conversion of the world 
28 apostles were sent out, and all the kingdoms of the earth were 
divided among 12 dukes. 

With the courage of despair the deluded people had for a long 
time defended themselves against the besiegers. But by and by 
famine began to rage in the city and the exhausted defenders were 
unable to hold out any longer. Then the besiegers rushed across 
the walls, entered the city, and engaged in a horrible massacre. 
The king and Knipperdolling fell alive into the hands of their 
enemies who wreaked a terrible vengeance upon them. Their dead 
bodies were suspended in iron cages on one of the church steeples 
of the city as a warning to future generations. These events 
occurred during the years 1533—1535. 

Mlinster fell into the hands of the Catholic Church, and as a 
result of this fanaticism Westphalia was lost to the Protestant cause. 

76 The Influence of the Reformation upon the internal 
affairs of the Church. After having separated from itself 
these restless elements, the Reformation pursued a 
steady and vigorous development both inwardly and 
outwardly. On the advice of the reformers John the 
Steadfast, who had succeeded his brother Frederick the 
Wise in 1525, instituted a church visitation throughout 
the Saxon Electorate (1528-29). The changes in the 
church service which the Reformation had rendered nec- 
essary were now introduced. Tn this important work 
the following principle was adhered to : that all beauti- 
ful rites and practices which had come down from ages 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 187 

of faith and which could serve to heighten the devotional 
feelings should be retained, and only what was unevan- 
gelical and exotic should be removed. The Latin had 
to give place to the mother-tongue, the sermon became 
a main part of the service, the cup was restored to the 
laity, and the congregation took an active part in the 
singing, which was now greatly enriched, especially by 
the beautiful hymns of Martin Luther. 

In regard to the constitution and church polity, Lu- 
ther would much have preferred to reestablish the inde- 
pendent, self-government of the Church under bishops, 
but as nearly all the bishops adhered to the Catholic 
Church, the reformers in Saxony were compelled to turn 
to the Elector and request him to assume the church 
government at least for the present. In this arrange- 
ment no changes were afterwards made, but the highest 
church authority remained in the hands of the prince, 
who exercised this authority through consistories, com- 
posed of both clerical and lay members. Under the 
consistories were placed superintendents, who were to 
ordain ministers, and to superintend the church work 
in their respective districts. 

The church polity adopted in Electoral Saxony 
served, in the main, as a model for all other German 
states where the Lutheran Church was established. 

For the Christian education of the people and the ad- 
vancement of higher learning the reformers were earnest 
and incessant laborers. Through the church visitation, 
above mentioned, Luther learned that the grossest 
ignorance prevailed both among the clergy and the 
people. To remedy this evil he wrote his two catechisms 
(1529), the larger for teachers and the smaller for the 
people. His friend Bugenhagen remodeled the institu- 



188 THE MODERN ERA 

tions of higher learning on the improved principles of 
the Kenaissance and the Reformation. 

In social matters the Reformation wrought a com- 
plete revolution. Monastic life was no longer the ideal 
of a Christian life, and men learned to place a higher 
value upon domestic and civic virtues. Monks and nuns 
left their convents and entered the world to live the lives 
of good and useful citizens. Marriage and family life 
were again held in proper esteem when the ministers 
were freed from the fetters of celibacy. Luther himself 
married in 1525, and established a home which became 
a model of true piety and domestic happiness. 

The character and domestic life of Martin Luther. In person Luther 
was of medium height and heavy build. At the disputation of 
Leipzig he is described as so emaciated by sorrow and hard study 
that one could count the bones in his body. Later in life, however, 
he was fleshier. His expression was somewhat coarse, but full of 
life and spirit, his eyes were clear and sparkling. 

He was of a remarkably versatile genius. With deep and fervent 
sensibilities he united a vivid imagination and sound judgment. He 
was rapid in his mental processes. He rapidly grasped a situation, 
formed his resolutions quickly, and carried them out with determined 
energy. Even in esthetic lines he was richly endowed. With music 
and song he refreshed himself during leisure moments, and was a 
warm friend of other arts. He especially appreciated whatever 
contributed to increase the devotion and solemnity of the church 
service. In his hymns, he has himself given the Church the best 
means for attuning the heart to reverence and devotion. In them 
sublimity is clothed in childlike simplicity, fervency and depth of 
feeling in intuitive clearness, and the whole breathes a spirit of 
Christian heroism and ardent devotion. The first German hymnal 
was published in 1524, and the following year a new edition was 
required. Even in our English hymnals Luther's hymns are among 
the brightest gems, as for instance "A mighty Fortress is our 
God." 

In disposition Luther was frank and sprightly, often playful, 
and possessed of a large fund of humor. In society he spread joy 
and sunshine about him. He was at the same time hasty and 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 



189 




190 THE MODERN ERA 

impetuous and easily aroused against his opponents. This fault, 
however, he humbly acknowledged, and often wished that he "could 
mist as softly as Melanchthon, but of swords you can not make 
down, nor peace of war." Inward conflicts and physical afflictions 
caused him many dark moments, but by constant faith and prayer 
he passed through them all. 

His capacity for work was remarkable, and it was often taxed 
to the utmost. He was a diligent lecturer at the university, 
preached often, was sought as a spiritual adviser by a vast number 
of persons, did the main part of the work of organizing and super- 
intending the new Church, and yet he found time to give counsel 
and advice to princes and others in important matters, and to carry 
on an extensive correspondence. Moreover he gave to his con- 
temporaries and to posterity an invaluable treasure in his Bible 
translation and his many other important works, which were prin- 
cipally of a doctrinal, exegeucal, or polemical nature, and which 
have served countless thousands "for doctrine, for reproof, for 
correction, for instruction in righteousness." 

Luther was, in the best sense of the word, a popular man. 
Sprung from the lowest ranks and fully acquainted with all their 
conditions, he loved the common people, and knew, perhaps better 
than any one else, how to speak to their hearts, and to give expres- 
sion to their innermost thoughts and feelings. Like Zwingli he was 
a true patriot. Himself a noble type of the German nation, he 
more than any one else laid the foundation for the independent de- 
velopment of the German national spirit. 

But Luther could never have accomplished what he did if he 
had not been the man of faith and prayer that he was. With child- 
like submission and trustfulness, he laid all his cares before the 
Lord. "My mantelet", said he, "is faith and prayer. Prayer I 
hold to be stronger than the devil, what would otherwise have be- 
come of Luther?" He spent at least three hours a day in his room 
in fervent prayer. Whenever he felt assured that God's cause re- 
quired it, he prayed with a boldness which in the case of an ordinary 
man would have seemed presumption, as for instance when he was 
summoned to the bedside of Melanchthon, who had been taken 
suddenly and seriously ill. "Then", writes he, "my God had me 
to deal with, for I threw my sack at his door and filled his ears with 
all his promises of hearing prayer; so that he could not but hear 
me if I were ever to trust in his promises." Hereupon he ap- 
proached the bed and seized Philip's hand and cried, "Be of good 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 191 

courage, Philip, you shall not die." His prayer was answered, and 
he was permitted to the end of his life to retain at his side this 
valuable friend. 

It was during a period of troubles and trials, while fanatic and 
Catholic, each in his way, sought to destroy the Reformation, that 
Luther "to vex the devil and please his father" took the important 
step of marrying. His choice fell upon a former nun, Catharine 
von Bora. Luther was fortunate in his marriage and lived a happy 
family life. He was devotedly attached to his wife, and she on 
her part always looked up to her husband with the deepest respect, 
and always addressed him with the title "Doctor". She was faith- 
ful in all her household duties and was very economical. This latter 
virtue was almost a necessity, for Luther's income was never large, 
at best only 300 gulden (about $1,000) and a home in the old 
Augustinian convent in Wittenberg, which had been presented to 
him for a home by the Elector. Luther, however, was very liberal 
and gave away money, if he had it, or else articles of value, in the 
happy belief that God would provide. He was glad to receive his 
friends in his home and entertained them in his family circle with 
music and song. At table he was very talkative, both in jest and 
earnest. His friends wrote down a number of his Table Talks, and 
thus they have been preserved to posterity. 

Luther had three sons and as many daughters. He gave them 
all a careful bringing up, judiciously blending earnestness with 
love. How well he understood how to be a child among children 
may be seem from his letter to his little son Hans written at Co- 
burg, where he staid during the Diet of Augsburg. From this 
letter the following extract is made: 

"Grace and peace in Christ, my dear little son. I am pleased 
to see that you learn your lessons well and that you pray diligently. 
Do so, my dear little Hans, and persevere; and when I come home, 
I will bring you a nice little present. I know of a pretty garden 
where merry children run about, that wear golden coats, and 
gather nice apples, and pears, and cherries, and plums under the 
trees, and sing and dance, and ride on pretty horses with golden 
bridles and silver saddles. I asked the man of the place who the 
children were, and he said, 'These are the children who love to pray 
and read'. Then I answered, 'Dear sir, I also have a son who is 
called Hans Luther; may he not also come into the garden, and eat 
these nice apples and pears, and ride the pretty horses and play 



192 



THE MODERN ERA 



with these children?' 'Yes', said the man, 'if he loves to pray, and 
read, and is good, he, too, may come into this garden; and Philip 
and Justus* may also come. And when they have all come here they 




Luther's House in Wittenberg. 



shall have pipes and drums and lutes and all sorts of musical in- 
struments, and they shall dance and shoot with little crossbows. ' 
Then he showed me a smooth lawn in the garden, laid out for 

* Hans Luther's playmates, sons of Melanchthon and Justus Jonas. 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 193 

dancing, where hung pipes of pure gold, and drums and beautiful 
silver crossbows. — — " 

Luther was also to experience sorrow in his family circle. Two 
of his daughters died in early years. He was especially attached 
to one of them, the amiable Magdalena, and the separation from 
her was almost more than he could bear. But he comforted him- 
self with the assurance "that she would rise again and shine as a 
star, yea as the sun." 

The controversies which Luther had to engage in with men, who 
like himself had arisen against the Papacy, caused him many sor- 
rows. First there was the controversy about the Lord's Supper 
with the Swiss Reformers. And a few years later (1537) he had to 
turn his weapons against one of his own colleagues at Wittenberg, 
John Agricola, who denied the office of the Law as a Means of 
Grace, and held that the preaching of the Gospel was sufficient to 
work both repentance and faith. Luther proved that the Law was 
necessary not only to convict men of their sins, and to work in 
them a true sorrow for sin, but also to serve as a rule of life for 
the regenerated. He succeeded also in convincing his opponent 
and inducing him to forsake his error (1540) . 

68. The External Affairs of the Reformation before the Diet 
of Augsburg, The Emperor needed the support of Ger- 
many in his wars with France and the Turks, and, there- 
fore, dared not use force against the adherents of the 
new doctrine, who became more and more numerous from 
day today. For this reason the Edict of Worms was nev- 
er carried out, but the Emperor on the other hand was 
compelled to give his sanction to the Decree of the Diet 
of Spires (1526), according to which each Estate of the 
Empire (prince or free city) was to arrange all church 
matters within the respective states until a General 
Church Council could be held. Under this protection the 
Reformation spread more rapidly than before. The 
princes had a special reason for favoring this move- 
ment as it afforded them an opportunity to assume the 
highest ecclesiastical authority in their respective states 
and to confiscate to the crown the vast estates of the 

13 



194 THE MODERN ERA 

Church. But in this way there arose a mingling of 
spiritual and temporal interests, which was deprecated 
by the Reformers, and which brought about unhappy 
results for the future. 

Like the Electorate of Saxony many of the free cities 
and principalities now opened themselves to the spread 
of the Gospel. Among these Hesse assumed the most 
important position for a time, as its energetic land- 
grave, Philip the Magnanimous, took the lead in all 
measures for the defence of the evangelical doctrines 
against outward force. Furthermore the doctrines 
of the Reformation spread practically throughout all 
Catholic Christendom, and in most countries the adher- 
ents constituted vast multitudes. In some places the 
latter were subjected to cruel persecutions, and many 
ended their days as martyrs of the cause. 

When the Emperor had at last concluded peace with 
France, the Reformation seemed for awhile in danger. 
Measures were now taken for carrying out the Edict of 
Worms. At a new Diet of Spires (1529) a resolution to 
that effect was adopted. Against this resolution the 
evangelical princes offered a protest. From this circum- 
stance they were called Protestants, a name afterwards 
applied to all who approved the principles of the 
Reformation — Material and Formal. 

69. The Diet of Augsburg. The Emperor now decided 
to take up the religious question for final decision at a 
new diet, which he summoned to meet at Augsburg in 
the spring of 1530. The Protestant princes prepared 
to present to the Diet a brief statement of their belief. 
This was drawn up by Melanchthon and was read at the 
diet on the 25th of June the same year. It has received 
the name of the Augsburg Confession and constitutes 
the chief symbolical book of the Lutheran Church. It 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 195 

contains 28 articles. In the first 21 articles it gives a 
short, but clear presentation of the main doctrines of 
the Lutheran Church, and in the 7 last articles the 
abuses of the Catholic Church which had been rejected. 
This modest, definite, and biblical presentation made a 
favorable impression even on many of the Catholic 
princes. But the Emperor ordered his theologians to 
prepare a refutation of it. This refutation he declared 
contained the principles which he would hold to, and de- 
manded that the Protestant princes should declare 
themselves convinced. In reply to this refutation, Me- 
lanchthon prepared a defence of the Augsburg Confes- 
sion (the Apology). The Emperor, however, refused to 
receive it, and the decree of the Diet threatened forcible 
measures. The Protestant princes were, however, given 
time for consideration until the middle of April the fol- 
lowing year. 

Melanchthon afterwards revised his Apology and pub- 
lished it the following year. It constitutes the second 
symbolical book of the Lutheran Church. 

70. The League of Schmalkald. Several of the evangel- 
ical cities now formed a defensive league at Schmalkald 
against the dangers threatened by the decree of the Diet 
of Augsburg (1531). The chief men of the League were 
the Elector of Saxony — first John the Steadfast (died 
1532), then his son and successor John Frederick — and 
the Landgrave of Hesse, Philip the Magnanimous. This 
spirited demonstration together with an invasion of the 
Turks made the Emperor more conciliatory, and the re- 
ligious peace of Nuremberg was concluded (1532), which 
granted freedom to the Protestant states until a Gen- 
eral Church Council should decide the religious contro- 
versies. 

The Pope, who still held in fresh memory the Reform- 



196 THE MODERN ERA 

atoiy Church Councils, was averse to summoning a 
new synod, but was finally compelled to yield and called 
a meeting of the Church at Mantua (1537). At the 
same time he demanded that the Protestants should 
pledge themselves in advance to abide by the resolution 
adopted by the majority. When the Protestants, as 
was natural, refused to pledge themselves, he suspended 
the meeting. 

In the mean time the Protestants had prepared 
themselves to give an account of their faith at this 
meeting too. For this purpose Luther drew up a con- 
fession in which he on the one hand laid down the main 
points of his doctrine, and on the other repudiated the 
errors of the Catholic Church in such incisive terms that 
this document may well be regarded as the Lutheran 
abjuration of Catholicism. This Confession was signed 
—together with the Apology of the Augsburg Confession 
and Luther's Larger and Smaller Catechisms— at a 
meeting held by the Protestants in Schmalkald, and 
has, therefore, been called the Schmalkald Articles. 

They constitute the third symbolical book of the 
Lutheran Church; Luther's two catechisms constitute 
the fourth. At this meeting the Protestant princes also 
renewed the defensive league against the Emperor and 
the Catholic princes. 

71. The Schmalkaldic War. Finally the Emperor suc- 
ceeded in obtaining peace from his enemies, and pre- 
pared himself to attack the Schmalkaldic League. But 
first the Pope was compelled to call a Church Council. 
This he summoned at Trent, in 1545. The Protestants 
did not think it worthwhile to send delegates to a meet- 
ing conducted by their mortal enemy, the Pope. The 
Emperor then felt authorized to proceed against them 
with military force. Some time, however, was spent in 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 197 

negotiations, during which Luther was permitted to lay 
down his weary head to rest and thus escaped the evils 
of a religious war. He died at Eisleben, 1546. 

Shortly afterwards the war broke out. The Prot- 
estants allowed the favorable moment for attacking 
the Emperor to pass by. One of their princes, Duke 
Maurice of Saxony, son-in-law of Philip of Hesse, moved 
by selfish interests went over to the Emperor's side. In 
this way the Emperor soon made himself master of the 
South German Protestants, and then completely van- 
quished the Elector John Frederick at Muhlberg(1547). 
The latter was taken prisoner, and Maurice received a 
part of his lands and the electoral dignity. The Land- 
grave Philip of Hesse had then no other recourse than 
to surrender. He, too, contrary to the Emperor's prom- 
ise to Maurice, was kept in captivity. 

For several years it looked as if the cause of the 
Reformation in Germany was lost. But by and by there 
came an unexpected turn in affairs. Duke Maurice, dis- 
satisfied with the Emperor's treatment of the Land- 
grave Philip and with his conduct toward the princes in 
general, turned his forces against his former ally. The 
Emperor, who was not prepared for such contingencies, 
was forced to conclude the Peace of Passau (1552), 
which was afterwards confirmed by the religious Peace 
of Augsburg (1555). By the terms of this peace it was 
stipulated that such princes of the Empire as had 
adopted the Augsburg Confession or would do so in the 
future were to enjoy religious freedom and equal privi- 
leges with the Catholics. Princes of the Reformed 
Church were not included in this peace. Regarding 
ecclesiastical princes it was further stipulated that 
should they turn Lutherans they were to give up their 
sees, and their lands were to remain in the possession of 



198 THE MODERN ERA 

the Catholic Church. This was known as the Ecclesias- 
tical Reservation. To this point was added the state- 
ment that the Lutheran princes had not agreed to it. 
Thus there still remained various seeds of strife, and 
these became in time the main cause of the Thirty 
Tears' War, which was at first waged principally as a 
religious war. 

Luther's Death. Luther had often wished and prayed that he 
might escape the evils of a religious war, and he had the firm con- 
viction that his prayer would be answered. Many labors and cares 
had broken him down and made him weary of the world. It grieved 
him, too, to see professed Christians lead unworthy lives and strive 
among themselves for earthly trifles. His last work was the settle- 
ment of a quarrel of this kind, which had arisen between the counts 
of Mansf eld. For this purpose he had to leave Wittenberg in the 
beginning of the year 1546 and go to Eisleben. Here he fell sick, 
and though his sickness was not very severe, for he was able to be 
up the most of the time, yet he felt that his earthly struggles would 
soon be over. And in this thought he rejoiced, but at the same 
time he was filled with anxiety for the future of Germany, and 
admonished his friends after his departure to pray diligently for 
strength to hold out in the trials that lay before them. 

In the afternoon of the 17th of February his sufferings in- 
creased. He complained of pains in his breast, and three times in 
succession repeated, "Into Thy hands I commend my spirit, for 
Thou hast redeemed me, O Lord God of truth." He also comforted 
himself with these words of Scripture, "God so loved the world 
that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in 
him should not perish, but have everlasting life." The medicine ad- 
ministered did not help and his end was rapidly approaching. Then 
one of the pastors present cried aloud in his ear, "Reverend father, 
wilt thou hold fast to and die in the doctrine which thou hast 
preached?" His answer was clear and distinct, "Yes". He then 
turned upon his other side and fell asleep, and after a quarter of an 
hour calmly and peacefully breathed his last, at two o'clock in the 
morning of February 18th. 

By the request of the Elector his body was taken to Wittenberg. 
High and low joined in the solemn procession and sorrowfully fol- 
lowed the remains of their beloved teacher. His body was taken 



THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND 199 

to the church upon whose door his 95 theses had been nailed. 
Bugenhagen preached the funeral sermon in German, and Melanch- 
thon in Latin. The grave was made in the church itself to the 
right of the pulpit from which he had so often proclaimed the words 
of life. 

Thus passed away this hero of faith, perhaps "the greatest 
that the Church has had within her bosom since the days of the 
Apostles." "He was taken from trouble and permitted to enter 
into peaceful rest. ' ' But his deeds and words prompted by a living 
faith died not with him, but through them he yet spreaketh though 
he be dead. 

b. The Reformation in Switzerland* 

72. The Reformation in German Switzerland. In Zurich 
the pastor of the place, Ulrich Zwingli, arose, in 1519, 
against the sale of indigencies and, further, declared 
that the Holy Scriptures should be the sole authority in 
all religious matters. He stirred up a great commotion, 
which spread to several German cantons and there 
brought about changes in the Church, bringing it into a 
closer agreement with the teaching of the Bible. Among 
his most distinguished co-workers was the learned and 
pious (Ecolampadius, who introduced the Reformation 
into Basel. 

Zwingli had not had the deep experience of sin and 
grace that Luther had, but rather by classical culture 
and thorough study of the Scriptures he had come to a 
more liberal view and truer conception of Christianity. 
He laid special stress upon clear and logical definition, 
and presented in a distinct manner the contrasts be- 
tween the old and the new. As a citizen of a small in- 
dependent state, he took a lively interest in political 
matters. This gave to his reform movement a com- 
plexion entirely different from that of the Lutheran 
Reformation. While Luther proceeded from the material 



200 THE MODERN ERA 

principle of the Reformation and made it his chief aim 
to bring men to a life of faith and joy in the Lord, 
Zwingli proceeded from the formal principle and made it 
his chief object to lift men out of the darkness of igno- 
rance and superstition. In outward changes, as for in- 
stance, in the order of service and the like, Zwingli was 
quite radical and removed everything which was not 
enjoined in the Word of God. Luther would hear of no 
other means for the establishment of the Reformation 
than the preaching of the Word and the right adminis- 
tration of the Sacraments, while Zwingli did not think 
it wrong for the state to use force for the spread of the 
Gospel. 

It is, however, in the doctrine of the Lord's Supper 
that the views of Luther and Zwingli are the most diver- 
gent. Luther taught that in the Lord's Supper the 
true body and blood of Christ are really present, and 
that in, ivith, and under the bread and the wine they are 
received by all the communicants, by the believers unto 
the forgiveness of sins and eternal life, and by the un- 
believers unto comdemnation and death. Zwingli on 
the other hand held that the bread and wine symbol- 
ically represented but did not convey the body and 
blood of Christ, and, hence, that the Lord's Supper was 
simply a memorial service and not a means of grace. 
After several controversial pamphlets had been ex- 
changed, the Landgrave of Hesse, who labored to unite 
all the Protestants, arranged a conference at Marburg 
between the leaders of the two divergent tendencies of 
the Reformation (1529). On several points they reached 
an agreement, but in regard to the question of the 
Lord's Supper neither party would yield. Luther 
pointed to the Words of Institution, "This is my body", 
and parted from the Swiss Reformers with the words, 



THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND 201 

"Yours is a different spirit from ours." From that time 
the German and the Swiss Reformers went divergent 
ways, and gave rise to the two divisions of the Prot- 
estant Church, the Lutheran and the Reformed. 

Zwingli's appeal to the sword led to war between the 
Catholic and the Reformed cantons. The heart of the 
former consisted of the three original cantons of the 
Confederation — Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden. In a 
battle at Kappel (1531), the Catholics were victorious, 
and Zwingli was slain. After this the reform movements 
were suppressed in all the cantons in which the Catholics 
were in the majority, while the others held fast to the 
purer doctrines delivered to them by Zwingli and others. 

Ulrich Zwingli was descended from a wealthy peasant family and 
was born in Wildhaus, a few miles south of St. Gall, in 1484. His 
father was bailiff of Wildhaus. The boy's mind was early filled 
with the stories of his forefathers' struggles for liberty. Love of 
liberty and truth also became his life-long characteristics. Destined 
by his parents for the service of the Church, he was early sent to 
school, first at Basel and afterwards at Berne, where he received 
thorough instruction in Roman literature. 

At the age of sixteen, he entered the University of Vienna, 
where he engaged in humanistic studies. A few years later we 
find him again at Basel, where he was placed under a teacher who, 
to be sure, taught scholastic philosophy, but in a liberal spirit, 
and who taught his disciples to place a higher value on the Holy 
Scriptures than on scholastic subtleties. After having here re- 
ceived the degree of Master of Arts, he was appointed pastor at 
Glarus, in 1506. 

During his ten years' stay at this place, he not only labored in- 
cessantly for the moral uplifting of his congregation, but also with 
a remarkably free and unprejudiced mind he sought truth for his 
own sake. He began the study of Greek and above all the New 
Testament, since the original text had now been edited by Erasmus 
of Rotterdam. With the latter he had already become acquainted 
through correspondence and was for a long time one of his most 
enthusiastic admirers, though he afterwards went much further in 
his reforms than Erasmus would approve of. 



202 



THE MODERN ERA 




|VIHULDRICU;5 ^fOlNGLlllSj 



KlROHIM'AmOJt E.T PA5TOR. 
Obfif cJ\ ss 3 yltAii ji octob. AW is --*&•• 



Ulrich Zwingli. 



THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND 203 

He also studied the writings of the church fathers, especially 
those of St. Augustine. Still he felt that he could understand the 
Scriptures better when he read them without the help of commen- 
tators and only let the simpler and clearer passages explain the 
more difficult one. 

At this time it was customary for large numbers of Swiss youths 
to go forth as mercenary soldiers, especially to Italy to take part in 
the wars of the Pope, and more than once Zwingli himself accom- 
panied his fellow-townsmen as chaplain to the land south of the 
Alps and was present at various engagements, among others at the 
battle of Marignano. With a clearer judgment than most of his 
contemporaries he saw the political and moral dangers to his 
country that lurked in this military service and in the large annual 
gifts made by foreign princes to the officers of the various cantons 
to secure their favor. He published several pamphlets in which he 
pointed out these dangers and earnestly warned his countrymen. 
This brought him many enemies at home, and it was with a feeling 
of relief that he accepted a subordinate vicarship at Einsiedeln, in 
the canton of Schwyz. In the meantime his place in Glarus was 
filled by a vicar. 

For two years and a half he labored in Einsiedeln, and had an 
excellent opportunity to study a special feature of the abuses of 
the Catholic Church. There happened to be in a convent of Ein- 
siedeln a so-called miracle-working image of the Virgin Mary, and 
over the convent gate blazed the inscription, "Here the full for- 
giveness of all sins may be obtained. " Hither flocked every year 
large numbers of pilgrims from Switzerland and South Germany. 
Zwingli did not as yet directly oppose the Catholic Church, but only 
admonished her leaders to remove abuses, and openly attacked the 
sale of indulgencies which had found its way even to these regions. 
He preached the Word of God in its purity according to his judg- 
ment and sought to show that pilgrimages were not sufficient to 
give peace to a troubled conscience. 

A wider field was opened to him when he was called to the 
cathedral church in Zurich. On New Year's Day 1519 — the anni- 
versary of his birth; he was now 35 years old — he entered the pulpit 
and preached his first sermon. He announced that he did not intend 
to preach on the texts used in the Church since the time of Charle- 
magne, but would return to the practice of the early Church and 
expound the books of the Bible one by one in order. To begin with 



204 THE MODERN ERA 

he would present the life of Christ according to St. Matthew. 
He would thus set the Word of God in its entirety once more upon 
the candlestick, fully assured that true enlightenment would thus 
spread among the people. 

His sermons made a great stir. Educated men who for years 
had abstained from going to church as something entirely useless 
became his most interested listeners. There was a temporary inter- 
ruption in his preaching when the plague broke out in Zurich, in 
the summer of 1519, which swept away one-third of the inhabitants. 
In a most heroic manner Zwingli braved the horrors of the plague 
to comfort and help the sick and the dying. At last he was him- 
self stricken and was near unto death. During his illness he com- 
posed several spiritual songs which bear evidence of a true evan- 
gelical faith and mature Christian life. Upon his recovery he 
resumed his preaching and enjoyed the support of the city council, 
which in the following year (1520) issued an order to ail preachers 
to teach only what they could defend by the Holy Scriptures. 

When a few years later he undertook to show how little ground 
there was in the Bible for the ordinances of the fast, the higher 
church authorities, who had hitherto been most lenient, began to 
oppose the new movement in a most determined manner. Some 
fanatical Catholics even sought the life of the fearless reformer. 
But, in consequence, Zwingli's views only spread the more rapidly 
and won new victories. There were a number of well attended 
religious debates held in Zurich, in which Zwingli grounded in the 
Scriptures won easy victories. 

He now began the translation of the Bible into the mother- 
tongue, and in this important work he was zealously assisted by 
another pastor in Zurich by the name of Leo Judas. The Council 
became more pronounced in its support of his efforts, and gradually 
a number of changes were introduced. Most of the monasteries 
were suppressed, the clergy were allowed to marry, Zwingli him- 
self took a wife, the system of holy-days was abolished, and images 
were removed from the churches; a new liturgy written in the 
mother-tongue was introduced, altars were torn down, paintings 
were erased or covered with a coat of whitewash, and even church 
organs were thrown out. 

In place of the altar a table was procured, covered with a 
white cloth, and upon this were placed, during the celebration of 
the Lord's Supper, wooden vessels and cups with unleavened bread 



THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND 205 

and wine. When the bread and wine had been consecrated by the 
minister, they were distributed by the deacons to the communicants, 
who knelt each in his own pew. The sermon was made the chief 
part of the service. The Latin chants and songs were abolished, 
and their places were seldom filled with congregational singing in 
the mother- tongue, for Zwingli held that whatever was not directly 
enjoined in the New Testament should be abolished. Luther, on 
the other hand, did not go to such lengths, but in regard to forms 
and church polity he removed only what was contrary to the Word 
of God. 

Zwingli was constantly engaged in sore conflicts. For a time 
the Anabaptists caused him great trouble. These fanatics, who 
advocated among other changes also community of goods, had come 
even to Switzerland and had there occasioned a great deal of dis- 
turbance. For doctrine they cared little, but were fanatical in 
their efforts to transform everything in Church and State accord- 
ing to biblical directions understood in their most literal sense. 
Zwingli opposed them with great vigor, but was anxious to have 
them treated as leniently as possible. 

Of far greater significance was the unhappy Sacramental Con- 
troversy between the Germans and the Swiss. Zwingli' s part in it 
and the religious conference at Marburg have already been related. 

The more the Reformation spread in Switzerland — St. Gall, 
Berne, Basel, and other cities and cantons followed the example of 
Zurich — the more did the hostility of the Catholic cantons increase, 
and they formed a league among themselves against the Reforma- 
tion. After several efforts at mediation had failed, these cantons 
advanced with a strong force against Zurich. Zwingli had always 
advocated war, because he felt that the religious question in 
Switzerland could be settled only by the sword, and when the 
enemy now approached, he went forth as chaplain with the army 
to Kappel, where the decisive battle was fought (1531). The 
greatly inferior forces of Zurich were completely crushed, and 
Zwingli was severely wounded. "And is this a misfortune?" he 
exclaimed as he fell. "They may, indeed, kill the body, but not 
the soul." Some Catholic soldiers found him lying wounded, and 
asked him if he would confess to a priest or at last invoke the Holy 
Virgin, but he only shook his head. Then one of them struck him 
dead with his sword. The following day the body of the ' 'great 
heretic" was found and recognized. It was quartered and burned, 
and the ashes scattered to the winds. 



206 THE MODERN ERA 

In private life Zwingli made no distinction between high and 
low, but was friendly to all, and practiced great hospitality. Like 
Luther he was a great lover of music, and was himself a performer 
on several instruments. 

Should we further compare him with Luther we would find that 
his spiritual life had never been troubled with such fierce inward 
storms as the German reformer's. Neither had Zwingli at any 
time so unconditionally pledged his obedience to the Church as 
Luther did when he became a monk, and, consequently, no such 
heroic efforts were needed to tear him loose from this Church. In 
his search for truth and his bible study he had learned to know the 
errors of the Church in doctrine and institutions and this together 
with his natural bent made him a reformer. 

73. The Reformation in French Switzerland. From Ger- 
man Switzerland the reform movement quickly spread 
to the French. Here the Reformation was established 
principally by a French exile, John Calvin, who came to 
Geneva (1536), and was persuaded to remain there. 
Calvin was born in Picardy and was early distinguished 
for his remarkable mental gifts and great learning. The 
Bible and the writings of the reformers had opened his 
eyes to the truth. But when he freely expressed his con- 
victions, he was compelled to flee from his native land. 
In Geneva he was first called upon to deal with a party 
of about the same nature as the Zwickau prophets (the 
so-called Libertines), This party had succeeded in se- 
curing the support of the city magistrates. But by the 
unyielding firmness and stern discipline which always 
characterized Calvin, he finally succeeded in making 
himself master of this faction. From this time he placed 
his mark upon all the religious affairs of the city as 
well as on the civil government and the whole future 
development of the community. His influence after- 
wards spread to the whole Reformed Church. Nearly 
everywhere the Zwinglian type gave way to the Cal- 



THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND 207 

vinistic, and, hence, Calvin may rightly be called the 
second founder of this Church. 

Calvin had a far deeper conception of the Lord's 
Supper than Zwingli. He represents the bread and wine 
as an earnest of God's grace, and speaks of a spiritual 
power which proceeds from the glorified Saviour on the 
right hand of the Father, and which is imparted to all 
believing communicants. 

In the doctrine of sin and grace, Calvin, like the other 
reformers, followed St. Augustine. The latter's pre- 
destination doctrine he also accepted and carried it to 
a still greater extent, teaching with rigid consistency 
not only that God has from eternity elected some men 
to eternal life, but also that he has elected the others to 
eternal death. 

Unlike Luther and Zwingli, Calvin sought to make 
the Church wholly independent of the State, and at the 
same time, in case of necessity, to place the latter at the 
service of the Church. A synodical Church polity was 
established. This reached its fullest application in 
Scotland. There the care of the congregation was en- 
trusted to the pastor and certain laymen, called Elders, 
elected as his assistants. A group of local churches 
was placed under a Presbytery, composed of Elders, 
Pastors, and Doctors (professors at schools and uni- 
versities). The church authority in a whole province 
belonged to the Provincial Synod, composed of deputies 
from the presbyteries. The general supervision of the 
Church throughout the whole country fell to the General 
Synod, to which the provincial synods sent their dele- 
gates. 

Calvin introduced a severe discipline, which extended 
even to trifling matters. He assigned great importance 
to outward discipline, and thus laid the foundation for 



208 THE MODERN ERA 

a certain legalism, which, in general, characterizes the 
Reformed Church. 

In regard to the service, Calvin followed, in the main, 
the same principles as Zwingli. Hence, all ornaments 
were removed from the churches, and the service was 
stripped of all ceremonies and variations of prayer and 
song. On the reading and preaching of the Word all 
stress was laid, while the liturgical part of the service 
was wholly neglected. 

John Calvin was born in Picardy in 1509. A serious and religious 
turn of mind characterized the boy at an early age. The father, a 
poor notary, destined him at first for the service of the Church, 
and sent him for this purpose to Paris to study theology. But 
before long he changed his mind and ordered his son to take up 
instead the study of jurisprudence, in the hope that a more brilliant 
career would thus be opened to him. The son obeyed and devoted 
himself with great success to his legal studies at various universi- 
ties in France, and at the age of 19 received from the University 
of Orleans the doctor's dignity. Thus was his naturally keen in- 
tellect developed to still greater acuteness. 

At this time there occurred in him a thorough inward change. 
He felt troubled in conscience, and the thought of God awakened 
only fear and terror. No works of penance afforded him peace. 
Then there occurred in his soul a ' 'sudden conversion", to use 
his own words, and from that time Catholicism was dead to him. 
He now began an earnest study of the Bible, and as his father 
shortly afterwards died, he returned to Paris to resume his theo- 
logical studies, and began to preach to a small congregation of 
Protestants. The outbreak of a bloody persecution soon compelled 
him to leave France and to seek a refuge in Basel (1534) . 

Here he published, during the following year, what may per- 
haps be regarded as his most important work, his Institutio Chris- 
tians Religionis (Instruction in the Christian Religion). The im- 
mediate reason for the publication of this work was his desire to 
present the views of the French Protestants and thus defend his 
evangelical countrymen against Francis I., who had accused them 
of being fanatical and rebellious Anabaptists. 

After having spent some time in Italy, at the Court of Farrara, 
where several French exiles had found a refuge, he passed through 



THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND 



209 



Geneva on his way back to Basel (1536) . Here the greatest dis- 
order prevailed. The city had adopted the Reformation, but only 
in an outward way. The ordinances of the old Church had been 
abolished, but no new regulations had been introduced. Lawless- 
ness among the inhabitants prevailed on every hand. Several Prot- 
estant preachers of French extraction, among others Farel, labored 
to bring about better conditions, but with little success. When this 
Farel happened to hear that Calvin was in the city he hunted him 
up and practically 
compelled him to 
remain there by 
declaring that the 
judgment of a 
just God would be 
upon him if he 
shirked his duty 
to come forward 
at this place as a 
witness of the 
truth. 

Calvin yielded 
to this threat, and 
thus revealed a 
fundamental 
trait of his charac- 
ter and of his re- 
ligious views. For 
in this there was 
especially revealed 
a fear of God, 
manifesting itself 
in rigid obedience 
to his commands, 

a certain legal and Old Testament spirit, which is rather foreign 
to the thought of God as the loving and beloved Father and men as 
his children. With moral sternness and severe discipline, Calvin 
would subdue the hearts of men and thus win them for Christ. 

What wonder if by such methods he made many enemies? The 
rising discontent came to a head when Calvin and two other 
preachers (Easter 1538) declared that they could not celebrate the 
Lord's Supper because of the prevailing profligacy and immorality. 

14 




John Calvin. 
(After a contemporaneous picture.) 



210 THE MODERN ERA 

When they would not yield they were ordered to leave the city 
within two days. 

With a feeling of relief Calvin hurried northward, and stopped 
at Strassburg, where he became the pastor of a congregation of 
French exiles. At the same time he lectured at the university of 
the place and was busily engaged as a theological writer. He also 
took part in several religious conferences of the German Prot- 
estants, and formed a lasting friendship with Philip Melanchthon, 
to whose view of the Lord's Supper he was more favorably inclined 
than to that of Zwingli. 

In the meantime Calvin did not forget his congregation in 
Geneva, but assisted it in word and deed. Disorder and lawlessness 
had increased to a fearful extent, and the more serious and con- 
servative part of the people began most earnestly to desire the 
return of the enegetic reformer. It was finally decided to recall 
him. After some hesitation he returned to Geneva and was re- 
ceived with great demonstrations of joy (1541). But all opposition 
was not yet broken. His life was threatenad more than once, and 
a large part of the. inhabitants (the so-called Libertines) were 
always dissatisfied with his severe church discipline. They sought 
again and again to overthrow him, and once even by an open in- 
surrection. That they failed was due largely to the great number 
of exiles — Frenchmen, Netherlanders, Englishmen, and others 
driven from their homes by religious persecutions — who had come 
to Geneva with earnest and serious minds, well steeled in the school 
of persecution, and there became the main stay and support of 
John Calvin. 

With invincible energy he now carried out in a thorough and 
systematic manner the organization of the new Church. Doctrine 
and Morality he placed in the closest relation to each other. Even 
in the doctrine of predestination he proceeded in the interest of 
practical religion. He would give to his brethren in the faith (the 
elect) an absolute assurance of God's grace, and thus preserve 
them from a relapse into the Catholic Church. 

Upon the Church and its right organization he laid the greatest 
stress. Church government was given an aristocratic trait. The 
election of a pastor was to be made by the other pastors of the 
city, and confirmed by the city council and the congregation con- 
cerned. The office of bishop was abolished, but deacons were 
retained to assist the pastor in the care of the sick and the poor of 
the congregation. 



THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND 211 

Church discipline was to be exercised by the Consistory (the 
Presbytery), composed of the six pastors of the place and twelve 
elders, elected by the council. Severe discipline was exercised upon 
high and low. Prominent councilmen who had fallen into sin were 
denied the communion. Gamblers were placed in the pillory with 
their cards tied around their necks. A son who had abused his 
parents was put to death. Geneva was to be a model for a 
reformed state, and such it became in many respects. Undoubtedly 
they often went too far in their zeal, and after the manner of the 
times invaded the sphere of private life. Thus, for instance, no 
one was allowed to lie sick in bed three days without summoning 
the pastor. Even the number of courses and guests at invitations 
were regulated by ordinances. 

With regard to church service, Calvin had on the whole the 
same views as Zwingli. He introduced, however, congregational 
singing, using at first certain portions of the Psalms translated and 
versified by himself. The Lord's Supper was administered four 
times a year. The service opened with the confession of sin. 
Calvin himself preached every day alternate weeks. His manner 
of preaching was clear and convincing. He was, however, not a 
popular preacher like Luther. Sunday was kept with the greatest 
strictness. Christmas and other great feast-days were kept, but 
not with the same solemnity as among the Lutherans. 

Shortly after his first arrival in Geneva, Calvin had begun 
lectures on the Bible before large audiences, which were continually 
increasing. As a scientific expounder of the Scriptures he un- 
doubtedly ranked very high. Five years before his death an aca- 
demy was established at Geneva, which attained great celebrity. 
Young men from various parts of Europe came here to study. They 
afterwards labored in their respective lands for the spread of the 
Reformation in the spirit of John Calvin. 

His influence extended far and wide not only into France, but 
also to England, Scotland, and other lands. His greatest diffi- 
culty was to win the German Swiss. They suspected him of being 
a secret Lutheran, and would not accept his predestination doctrine, 
and only after much hesitation would they, in the main, accept his 
views of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper. 

Calvin was often accused of harshness, not exactly against 
personal enemies, but dissenters from his doctrines. His conduct 
toward the Spaniard Michael Servetus, especially, can not be de- 



212 THE MODERN ERA 

fended, 'this man, a restless spirit, had denied the doctrine of the 
trinity and by his inflammable style of writing had caused much 
offense. When in his wanderings he reached Geneva, he was 
arrested by Calvin's orders, and when he would not recant, he was 
condemned by the council and burned alive (1553) . 

But Calvin was strict not only with others but with himself as 
well. He fought hard against his faults, especially against his 
impetuosity and impatience of which he was fully conscious. His 
capacity for work was unparalleled. Only four or five hours a day 
were given to sleep. In appearance he was a spare medium sized 
man, with a pale face and quick, lively eyes. During his stay at 
Strassburg he married. After nine years his - wife died. Calvin 
mourned her sincerely. It would be wrong to say that he was 
unfeeling. His sensibilities were, however, far overbalanced by his 
masterful intellect and iron will. In this respect he has been com- 
pared to Gregory VII. 

Calvin had always had a weak body, and his strength was no 
doubt greatly undermined by his stupendous labors. Several cases 
of severe illness during his latter years also contributed toward 
the same end. But against all these afflictions he fought with 
manly courage, and continued his indefatigable labors to the very 
last. When he felt his end approaching he took a touching leave 
of the council and the pastors, and a few days afterwards he 
passed away (May 1564). 

He had given orders that his funeral should be performed with- 
out any pomp, and that no monument should be erected on his 
grave. 

c. The Catholic Counter-Reformation. 

74. The Council of Trent. Against the Keformation 
the Papal Church was now aroused in a contest which 
awakened to new life all her slumbering powers. Efforts 
were made to carry out the reformation in head and 
members which the Middle Ages had sought in vain to 
effect. A succession of prominent popes arose and the 
most glaring abuses in the Church were abolished. But 
the question was not to effect a thorough reformation, 
but only to rejuvinate the Church upon the false basis 



THE CATHOLIC COUNTER-REFORMATION 213 

laid during the Middle Ages. Outwardly all efforts were 
made to regain as many of the countries lost by the 
Reformation as possible, and to make up for lands lost 
in Europe by new conquests in other continents. These 
efforts of the Roman Catholic Church to revive herself 
and to rally her forces against the Reformation have 
been called her Counter-Reformation. The most promi- 
nent means for the accomplishment of this end were the 
Council of Trent and the Order of Jesuits. 

The Council of Trent lasted with various inter- 
missions from 1545 to 1563. Here the doctrines 
gradually developed during the Middle Ages were defi- 
nitely formulated and adopted. Contrary to the prin- 
ciples of the Reformation (§§ 62 and 63) Tradition was 
given the same authority as the Scriptures, and Justi- 
fication was held to be not a forensic act in which God by 
grace imputes to the believer the righteousness of 
Christ, but on the other hand a healing act by which 
God infuses into man an inner righteousness partly 
through the merits of Christ and partly through and in 
proportion to man's own good works. 

The Decree of the Council of Trent was published in 
1564. This was soon followed by a summary of the 
same approved by the Pope and known as the Triden- 
tine Creed, and by a Roman Catechism. These three 
works constitute the first symbolical books of the 
Roman Church. 

75. The Order of Jesuits. In place of the old monastic 
orders, which on account of their ruin and decay could 
no longer serve as a prop to the Papacy there now 
appeared a number of new orders among which that of 
the Jesuits was the most important. The founder of 
the order was a Spanish nobleman, named Ignatius 



214 THE MODERN ERA 

Loyola, who with the most ardent enthusiasm for the 
Catholic Church combined a rich measure of practical 
sense and invincible energy. With a few others of like 
mind, he organized the Society of Jesus, which received 
the papal sanction in 1540. In a stricter way than in 
any other order was the duty of implicit obedience en- 
forced. In its organization the order was of a military 
nature and aimed at emancipating its members from 
everything that is usually dear to the human heart — 
fatherland, family, kindred, and friends — and changing 
them into passive but efficient instruments in its hands. 

The Jesuits made it their chief mission to further the 
interests of the Catholic Church with all available 
means. They went forth as missionaries to foreign 
lands, to India, Japan, China, and the newly discovered 
lands in America. They founded schools for the promo- 
tion of humanistic culture. As pastors and confessors 
they knew how to extend their influence among both 
princes and people. They covered Europe with their 
nets, and inaugurated a Catholic restoration, which for 
centuries involved Europe in bloody religious wars and 
terrible persecutions. 

But the darkest side of Jesuitism was its pernicious 
moral code. A Jesuit could well-nigh resort to all 
manner of fraud and acts of violence and defend himself 
with various sophism based on the principle that the 
end justifies the means. 

Ignatius Loyola was born at the castle of Loyola in the province 
of Guipuzcoa in 1491. In his early years he espoused the profession 
of a soldier. At the defence of Pampeluna against the French, he 
was severely wounded in one of his feet. For a long time he was 
confined to his couch. During this time he devoted himself to 
reading the legends of the saints and of the Virgin Mary. His soul 
was fired with an earnest desire to emulate the saints in self- 
renunciation and the abandonment of the world. Upon his recovery 



THE CATHOLIC COUNTER-REFORMATION 



215 



he vowed himself a knight of the Holy Virgin. His new life was 
inaugurated by a series of ascetic practices in which he mortified 
his body with severe scourging and rigorous fasts. He also devoted 
himself most earnestly to pious meditations during which he 
thought himself favored with revelations of Christ and the Virgin. 
His first intention was to preach the Gospel to the infidels in 
Palestine, and he 
even made a short 
visit to the Holy 
Land. He soon real- 
ized, however, that 
if he was to accom- 
plish anything he 
must secure himself 
a better education. 
Although 35 years 
old he began the 
study of the rudi- 
ments, and by great 
diligence and appli- 
cation made rapid 
progress. He studied 
at several universi- 
ties and finally at 
Paris. During this 
period of study, he 
secured a few de- 
voted followers, 
mostly of the 
Spanish nationality. 
With these he or- 
ganized a society in 
1534. At first they 
intended to adopt 

Loyola's plan and go forth as missionaries to the Holy Land. This 
plan had to be abandoned in consequence of the war between the 
Emperor and the Turks. They then decided to offer their services 
to the Pope. After some hesitation he gave his sanction to the 
order in 1540. 

At the head of the * order is a General with his seat in Rome. 
Loyola was the first general of the order until his death in 1556. 




Ignatius Loyola. 



216 THE MODERN ERA 

After him followed in succession Jacob Lainez and Francis Borgia. 
The latter is reported to have made the following well-known 
utterance: "We come in like lambs, we rule like wolves, we are 
driven out like dogs, but we return like eagles. ' ' The orders of 
the general are obeyed by all Jesuits. He is himself subject only 
to the orders of the Pope, but must be guided by the rules of the 
order. By the side of the general stand an "admonisher" and four 
assistants, whose duty it is to watch his conduct, and in case he 
should be guilty of serious errors, they might make a complaint to 
the general congregation, which meets every third year. The 
order was divided into four classes: First there were the masters 
or professi, who beside the usual monastic vows added one of 
obedience to the Pope in regard to accepting without pay any mis- 
sion to which they might be appointed. To this class only able and 
experienced men were admitted. From them were elected the 
chief officers of the order and all who were entrusted with secret 
commissions. Next in order came the assistants, or coadjutores, 
made up of priests and lay brethren. From them were chosen the 
presidents of many colleges and universities of the order. The 
third class was made up of the teachers, or scholastici, who engaged 
in learned studies, and were employed as instructors in the schools. 
In the fourth class were the novices. Besides these the order could 
employ spiritual and temporal co-workers, who could be dismissed 
from service at any time, and whose vows were binding only while 
in the service of the order. 

The novices were trained according to a system of ' 'spiritual 
exercises", which Loyola himself with excellent psychological 
insight had prepared and tried upon himself and others. By fixed 
methods the feeling and phantasy of the novice were wrought up 
to a high tension, and he was made to believe that without the 
order there was only misery and death while full salvation could be 
secured only within it. In this way he was usually after a certain 
period led to beg to be received into the higher classes. 

The Jesuits knew how to employ the various faculties of their 
members, but their training on the whole did not tend to develop 
what was truest and best in human nature. Family life, love of 
country, friendship — all had to be sacrificed in the interests of the 
order. Even between members of the order true friendship and 
confidence could rarely exist. The prevailing system of espionage 
prevented it. One member was to keep a careful watch over the 



THE CATHOLIC COUNTER-REFORMATION 217 

other's conduct and report his observations to his superior. In this 
way the superiors always had minute and definite reports of their 
inferiors. 

This same practice prevailed also in their schools. One pupil 
was encouraged to watch the conduct of the others and to report 
to the teacher. Otherwise the Jesuits were noted for their mild 
discipline. Corporal punishment was seldom resorted to. Their 
method was to spur the pupils on by bestowing public prizes and 
honorable mentions. Their instruction tended rather to produce 
brilliant than solid results. For pupils they usually preferred the 
children of noble and wealthy families and such as intended to enter 
the ministry, in order to secure influential patrons of their order 
and zealous supporters of the Catholic Church. 

Their widest and most pernicious influence they exerted as 
preachers and pastors. As confessors they knew how to secure a 
complete control over the consciences of the penitents. At the same 
time they made themselves agreeable by making allowances for 
men's weaknesses and shortcomings. They did not demand a com- 
plete breaking off from sin. They bolstered up vice and made 
carnal deeds appear as virtues. 

It is in the field of foreign missions that the order presents its 
most favorable side. Francis Xavier, their first missionary in 
heathen lands, deserves our unstinted admiration. He began his 
labors on the west coast of Hindustan. He lived in every respect 
as a despised Pariah (the lowest caste in India) , and endured every 
hardship and self-denial to win hearts for Christ. He also carried 
the glad tidings of salvation to Japan, and labored there with the 
same self-sacrificing zeal. But it was not long before the Jesuit 
mission began to degenerate. In their compromises with heathen 
views and customs they went to the greatest lengths, and by and 
by the congregations established by them retained little of Chris- 
tianity except the name and a few religious forms. The Pope was 
at last compelled to interfere to correct these abuses. 

In Europe their steps fairly reek with blood. Religious wars, 
religious persecutions, open violence, and secret crimes mark their 
path. Everything was allowed if it could only be made to appear 
that it promoted the interests of the Roman Church and of their 
order. "Destruction and misery are in their ways: and the way of 
peace have they not known." 



218 THE MODERN ERA 

B. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 

a. The Territory of the Lutheran Church, 

76. The Lutheran Church in Middle and Southern Europe. 

In Germany the Lutheran Church prevailed in the northern 
and southwestern states. A few of the latter (the Palatin- 
ate, Hesse, and others), however, afterwards went 
over to the Eeformed Church. On the other hand the 
Catholic Church succeeded by heroic efforts to maintain 
itself in Westphalia and the Khine Provinces. 

In the Austrian lands the reform movement started 
very early. In Bohemia and Moravia the ground had been 
prepared through the labors of John Huss. The doc- 
trines of the Bohemian Brethren approached the Lu- 
theran very closely, and among the Calixtines many 
were won for the Reformation. Before long the Prot- 
estants were strong enough to demand religious liberty, 
which was secured to them by a royal charter in 1609. 
This liberty was, however, of short duration owing to 
the breaking out of the Thirty Years' War. In the Ger- 
man hereditary lands of Austria as well as in Hungary and 
Siebenburgen there were also many Protestants, who were 
often sorely oppressed for conscience' sake. 

In Prussia the Grand-Master of the Teutonic Order, 
Albert of Brandenburg, became a Lutheran as early as 
1525, and secularized his estates, i.e. he converted them 
into a temporal duchy. His example was followed by 
the Grand-Master of the Order of the Sword and thus 
the Reformation was established in all of the so-called 
Baltic Provinces. 

In Poland the Reformation won many friends in its 
early period. Lutherans, Reformed, and Bohemian 
Brethren here formed a union and succeeded in securing 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 219 

religious freedom. It seemed at one time as if Poland 
would become a Protestant country. But during the 
long reign of Sigismund III., the Jesuits succeeded in 
effecting a counter-reformation, which secured to the 
Catholic Church a decided ascendancy. 

Even Italy and Spain had at one time not a few evan- 
gelical believers. But by the inquisition and other in- 
struments of force the light was put out, and papal 
darkness again completely enveloped these lands. 

77. The Lutheran Church in the Scandinavian Countries. 

The Evangelical doctrines were taught in Denmark as 
early as the reign of Christian II. His successor, Frede- 
rick L, was a zealous supporter of the Reformation, and 
in spite of the opposition of the Catholic clergy, the 
Evangelical doctrines spread rapidly in different parts 
of the kingdom. 

The great war which broke out after the death of 
Frederick I., though not a religious war, yet decided the 
fate of the Reformation in Denmark. The victorious 
Christian III. and the nobility were zealous Lutherans, 
and through their influence the Reformation was 
formally established in Denmark by a decree of the Diet 
of Copenhagen in 1536. Luther's friend, Doctor Bugen- 
hagen, was called in to complete the new church organ- 
ization. 

In Norway, which now became a province of Denmark, 
the Reformation was established by a government or- 
der. But the common people long continued loyal to 
the old faith. In Iceland Catholicism maintained itself 
until 1550. 

The first cne to preach against Catholic errors in 
Sweden was the gifted and zealous Olaus Petri. He was 
the son of a blacksmith in Orebro, and had studied at 



220 THE MODERN ERA 

Wittenberg at the beginning of Luther's great work. 
Upon his return to Sweden, in 1519, he was placed at 
the head of the chapter-school in Strangnas, and at 
once began instructing in the truths of the Bible. He 
soon won to his side the archdeacon of Strangnas, 
Laurentius Andrew, and this energetic and clear-sighted 
man soon had an opportunity, at the elective diet of 
1523, to make the king, Gustavus Vasa, more fully ac- 
quainted with the aims and purposes of the Reforma- 
tion. With a clear and unsophisticated mind, the king 
was readily convinced of the truth of the new doctrine 
and saw, too, what temporal advantages a revolution 
in the Church would afford him and the kingdom. 
Shortly afterwards he promoted both of these reform- 
ers, appointing Laurentius Andreae as his secretary and 
later as chancellor, and Olaus Petri as preacher in the 
large St. Nicholas' Church in Stockholm. 

At first, however, the king proceeded very cautiously, 
lest he should arouse the people, who were ignorant and 
might easily be led astray. He would not admit that a 
new faith was introduced, but that the old was simply 
cleansed from papal errors. He opened the way for all 
to the source of truth by publishing a Swedish version 
of the New Testament, in 1526. The whole Bible was 
published in Swedish through the efforts of archbishop 
Laurentius Petri, in 1541. 

Tho Diet of Vesteras in 1527 was a decisive event in 
the history of the Swedish Reformation. The two most 
important resolutions adopted there were that the Word of 
God should be preached in its purity throughout the land and that 
the Kiny and not the Pope was to be the highest authority in the 
Swedish Church. From this time forth the Reformation 
proceeded slowly but surely. A church council met in 
Orebro in 1529 to regulate the affairs of the Church. As 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 221 

a guide to the new church service and other ministerial 
acts Olaus Petri published a Church-Booh in 1529, and 
the Swedish Missal in 1531. It was at this time, 1531, 
that Sweden received her first evangelical archbishop in the 
person of Lauren tius Petri, a calm and firm man, broth- 
er of Olaus Petri. This office he held for 42 years and 
was a pillar of strength in the Swedish Reformation. To 
his other services he added the publication of a new 
Church constitution, which was adopted in 1572, and 
became the first Lutheran church-law in Sweden. 

Under Gustavus Vasa and Erik XIV., the Reforma- 
tion developed in a comparatively quiet and peaceful 
manner. But under John III., the Catholic reaction, 
which was now in full force in southern Europe, reached 
with its influence even to Sweden. King John, w T ho 
through his Catholic queen came in close touch with 
Catholicism, felt it his duty, when he had ascended the 
throne, to restore the unity of the Church by bringing it 
back to the position it held at the close of the contro- 
versial period. To this end he published a new liturgy, 
the so-called "Red Book" to be used at divine service. 
In this liturgy many Catholic practices were enjoined 
and it also contained touches of questionable Catholic 
doctrines. An effort was also made to restore the con- 
nection with the Pope. But this was soon abandoned, 
for the Pope w T ould make no concessions, and the 
attempt met with general disapproval throughout the 
kingdom. In regard to his liturgy, however, John was 
unyielding, and such ministers as would not conform to 
his orders were deposed and banished. 

At this juncture Duke Charles appeared in defence of 
the true doctrine. He offered his duchy as a place of 
refuge to the persecuted. And when, upon the king's 
death, he held the reigns of the government for a time 



222 THE MODERN ERA 

as regent, he summoned a Church Council at Uppsala in 
1593. Here it was unanimously decreed that the Bible is 
the sole rule of faith, and that its doctrines are correctly set forth in 
the three Symbols and the unaltered Augsburg Confession. King 
John's liturgy was then abolished, and the church 
service and polity established by Gustavus I. were once 
more restored. 

By the Council of Uppsala the Swedish Beformation 
was completed. The reaction under John was not an 
unmixed evil. It had this good result that it led both 
clergy and people to realize what an inestimable treas- 
ure they had in God's pure Word. With true ardor they 
now embraced the pure doctrine, and defended it 
against every effort of King Sigismund and the Catho- 
lics to restore by cunning and force the Roman Catholic 
Church. The same enthusiasm inspired the Swedish 
people to follow their Hero king, Gustavus Adolphus, 
when he went forth as the defender of the Protestant 
faith in Europe. 

Here, too, the king as summus episcopus stood at 
the head of the church government. Unlike Germany 
the Scandinavian lands retained the episcopate, al- 
though it was not considered essential to the Church. 
In Sweden and Finland the chapter still continued side 
by side with the bishops with the privilege of sharing 
with him the government of the diocese. 

Laurentius Andres was perhaps the most prominent of the Swed- 
ish reformers. Of his early life little is known. It is, however, 
certain that he studied at Uppsala, Rostock, and Leipzig, and that 
he received the master's degree at the latter place. It is also 
known that he spent some time in Rome. In 1520 we find him as 
archdeacon in Strangnas. He was then a man of mature years 
and experience. 

About this time Olaus Petri returned from Wittenberg, and 
from him Andreae obtained more definite information about Luther's 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 223 

work, of which he had no doubt already heard many rumors. During 
the time immediately after the Massacre of Stockholm, in which 
the bishop of Strangnas lost his life, the government of that diocese 
was practically in the hands of Andreae, and under his care and 
protection the seeds of the Reformation were enabled to germinate 
and spring up in Swedish soil. At the elective diet of Strangnas, 
in 1523, king Gustavus formed the acquaintance of this gifted man. 
He acquainted the king more closely with the Lutheran doctrines, 
and inspired him with the idea that by crushing the hierarchy he 
might build up his own power and by the secularization of super- 
fluous church property he might increase his own resources as well 
as those of the crown. 

In a short time he was made archdeacon also of Uppsala and 
became the king's secretary and counselor. As such he faithfully 
assisted the king during the following years in the reorganization 
of both political and ecclesiastical affairs. Side by side the two 
patriots struggled for the independence of Sweden in all depart- 
ments. Andreae further originated many of the king's measures 
and in a masterful way wrote the king's letters and other documents 
and discharged the duties of chancellor. He always accompanied 
the king on his journeys, assisted him at meetings and in negotia- 
tions with foreign powers, and stood faithfully by him in the ad- 
ministration of justice. 

In church matters his influence was especially powerful. It 
was he who prepared the king's propositions at the memorable diet 
of Vesteras (1527). At the Church council of Orebro (1529) he 
presided, and the decisions of the council no doubt followed his plan. 
Here the resolutions of Vesteras were confirmed and further efforts 
were made to advance the reformation in a conservative spirit. For 
Laurentius Andreae desired moderation lest too great offense should 
be offered to the inherited customs of the people. 

Whether the translation of the New Testament into Swedish, 
published in 1526, in many respects a work of great merit, was 
made by him, or whether Olaus Petri with the help of his brother 
and others accomplished it is not yet clear. But it seems certain 
that it was published at his instigation and with his assistance. 

Notwithstanding the moderation observed in the establishment 
of this new order of things, Laurentius Andreae soon had to en- 
counter the bitter hate of the Catholic prelates and the enraged 
masses incited by the monks. For a time the king stood faithfully 



224 THE MODERN ERA 

by him. Gradually, however, the intimate friendship between the 
two great men began to wane and, on the part of the king, it was 
finally changed into enmity. The chief cause of the changed rela- 
tion between them was their different views as to the methods of 
carrying out the Reformation. The king seemed to lay the chief 
stress upon the secularization of church property and in this matter 
he went much farther than Andreae thought proper. Neither did 
he work for the improvement in education with the zeal that his 
secretary desired. He also seemed to aim at making himself ab- 
solute even in church matters, while his secretary, on the other 
hand, wished to secure for the church a certain amount of freedom 
and independence. 

After the year 1530 the rupture became more pronounced. 
Finally near the close of 1539 Laurentius Andreae and Olaus Petri 
were accused of high treason. The indictment, a tissue of un- 
sustained charges, bitter invectives, and more or less successful 
efforts at ridicule, was most probably written by von Pyhy, a Ger- 
man who for some time exerted a most baneful influence upon 
the king. On new year's eve the two reformers were brought to 
trial. Such undue haste prevailed that the accused were not given 
time to learn the nature of the accusation nor to make a written 
reply. By January 2, 1540, the court, in which the archbishop 
Laurentius Petri among others was a judge, was ready to pronounce 
the sentence of death. 

The king, however, did not wish to carry matters to such 
lengths, but contented himself with the infliction of heavy fines. 
The aged Laurentius Andreae lost all he had and lived the rest of 
his days in poverty and obscurity in Strangnas, where he died in 
1552. Thus was one of Sweden's noblest sons rewarded by his con- 
temporaries. A more impartial posterity has learned to make a 
truer estimate of the man and to honor his memory. 

Olaus Petri was born, in 1493, in Orebro. His parents appear to 
have been in good circumstances so that the young Olaus could with- 
out hindrance follow his inclination to study. At first he attended 
the instruction in the school of his native place and afterwards, in 
all probability, in the University of Uppsala. He next went to 
Wittenberg in Germany where he took the bachelor's degree in 
1516 and the master's in 1518. He became a devoted disciple of 
Martin Luther and was an eye-witness of the great reformer's first 
efforts. He no doubt also attended for a time the lectures of Philip 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 



225 



Melanchthon. In 1519 he returned to Sweden and became a secretary 
under bishop Matthias of Strangnas. The following year he was 
consecrated a deacon and placed in charge of the school in the city. 
With great courage he now began to proclaim to fellow teachers 
and students the new doctrines he had learned at Wittenberg, and 




Olaus Petri. 



an evangelical party was soon formed at Strangnas, which attracted 
attention even beyond the limits of the diocese. The domineering 
bishop Brask of Linkoping prepared to crush this rising "Lutheran 
heresy", but he could accomplish nothing as the "heretics" were 
placed under the protection of king Gustavus. 



15 



226 THE MODERN ERA 

Upon the king's recommendation Olaus Petri was appointed city- 
clerk of Stockholm in 1524. This position he held for seven years. 
At the same time he burned with zeal to proclaim the Word of God 
and the evangelical doctrines to the people. He preached with 
great success in the large church of Stockholm, but at the same 
time aroused a bitter opposition among the adherents of the old 
faith. This bitterness was increased by his marriage the year after 
his arrival in the city. He was, it is true, not ordained a priest, 
but the law of celibacy war regarded as applicable also to the 
deacons. 

During the following years, he developed a restless energy as a 
champion of the new ideas. In a number of popular tracts he 
attacked the doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church. He 
was also ready at all times to defend his faith in oral debate. His 
disputation with the learned Uppsala canon Peder Galle, at the diet 
of Vesteras 1527, is well known. 

But he was not satisfied with merely tearing down the old 
fabric. From the year 1527 he was busily engaged in preparing for 
the Swedish Church a new liturgy and good doctrinal literature. 
Besides the church-book and the missal, he published a small 
hymnal, and a postil which is still read by many people in certain 
parts of Sweden. And in addition to this, he no doubt took an 
active part in the translation of the Bible into Swedish. 

For a short time, during the early part of the decade 1530—40, 
he served as chancellor, but soon returned to his literary pursuits. 
This versatile genius now appeared as an excellent historian. In 
his Swedish Chronicle he proves himself a thorough investigator, 
with the courage to uncover the truth even when it might give 
serious offense to those in power. 

Like Laurentius Andreae, though somewhat later, he fell into the 
king's disfavor, and was like him condemned to death, but after- 
wards pardoned. He held the same views as Andreae with regard 
to the king's methods of carrying out the reformation. The king 
was further displeased with his Chronicle, whose liberty loving tone 
he did not like. He also aroused the king's resentment by his 
fearless denunciation of the king's faults, especially his habit of 
mingling profanity with his speech. 

But the king did not harbor by far as great a hatred toward 
Olaus Petri as toward Laurentius Andreae. The latter he meant to 
crush, the former simply to intimidate. But neither threat nor 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 227 

promise made any impression on the bold reformer, who continued 
to preach as his conscience and conviction dictated. The king 
finally learned to put up with his corrections, and some years after 
the trial for treason he even promoted him as pastor of St. 
Nicholas* Church in Stockholm, and at times even sought his 
advice. 

But the relation between them was never again the same as it 
had been at the first. Olaus Petri, however, did not allow this to 
interfere with his work, but continued to discharge the duties of 
his office faithfully and conscientiously to the time of his death, 
which occurred in 1552. 

As Laurentius Andreas labored for the Reformation in Sweden 
as the cool and calculating, but bold and energetic statesman so 
did Olaus Petri labor for the same as the fearless preacher and 
teacher, struggling with tongue and pen against ignorance and 
superstition for the evangelical education of the masses. His style 
is simple and direct, clear and convincing, and at the same time 
characterized by manly power and calm moderation. He was sel- 
dom seen excited. In his dealings with his opponents he distin- 
guished between person and thing, a great merit at a time when 
hasty invectives and personal abuse seemed to belong to the order 
of the day. He always labored for greater humanity in all depart- 
ments, as for instance in the treatment of prisoners, but never so 
as to defeat justice. He was a man of the people without being in 
any sense a demagogue. For a long time he regarded his calling 
simply as a lay preacher, and accepted ordination first in 1539. 
Neither did he attain any high honors in the Church, but through 
his writings and his labors as a reformer he has secured for himself 
an honored name in history. 

Laurentius Petri was six years younger than his brother Olaus. 
Like his brother he had studied at Wittenberg and been a disciple 
of Luther and perhaps of Melanchthon. In 1531 he had already 
served for some time as head of the school in Uppsala. 

In that year king Gustavus, setting aside the elective franchise 
of the chapter of Uppsala, summoned the bishops and more promi- 
nent clergy of Sweden to Stockholm for the purpose of choosing an 
archbishop. A large plurality of the votes were cast for Laurentius 
Petri, who was as yet comparatively little known. This was no 
doubt done at the king's instigation. He doubtless wanted an 
able, but at the same time mild and submissive man to fill the im- 



228 



THE MODERN ERA 



portant position, and these qualities he thought to find in the young 
rector of the University. In this he was not mistaken. During 
more than forty years' service the new archbishop proved himself 
a capable man, and though the king materially restricted his powers 
there always existed, on the whole, a pleasant relation between 
them. Only when the king seemed to aim at making himself 
absolute in the Church did the archbishop remontrate, but he was 
given a strong rebuff and for the time at least yielded. 

During the first ten 
years after his elec- 
tion we find him en- 
gaged in the transla- 
tion of the Bible. 
Later, toward the 
close of the reign, he 
developed a more gen- 
eral literary activity. 
Among his works 
from this period we 
notice a postil and a 
Swedish history. Still 
later he appeared as 
a hymnologist. 

During the reign of 
Erik XIV. he took an 
active part in various 
controversies. The 
king had had a cer- 
tain French protest- 
ant as a teacher 
through whose in- 
fluence he had ac- 
quired a preference for Calvinism, and during the first part of his 
reign he seemed to prefer that church. On this account the aged 
archbirhop published several controversial papers, in which his tone 
is not as temperate as his brother's had been, but at times even 
fierce and bitter. At first the controversy related to certain bap- 
tismal ceremonies which the Lutherans had retained, but the 
Reformed had rejected; such as the dbrenunciation, or the renuncia- 
tion by the sponsors on the part of the child of the devil and all his 
works, and the exorcism (§11). Both of these practices were de- 




Laurentius Petri. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 229 

fended by the archbishop and were retained in the Swedish Church 
up to the opening of the nineteenth century. 

Then followed a sharp controversy about the Lord's Supper, in 
which Laurentius Petri took a position in many respects approach- 
ing that of the Catholic Church. In other respects he was of course 
no friend of Catholicism. Even during the last year of his life he 
wrote three especially sharp papers against the Catholic Church 
and a Catholic priest, who staid at the Court of queen Catherine 
of Jagello, and who had made an attack upon his book on the 
regulations of the Swedish Church. 

It is with a feeling of relief that we turn from these contro- 
versies to another phase of his comprehensive labors. He has left 
a lasting monument to his name in his Church Regulations of 1571, 
the result of hard labor, ripe experince, and devoted love to the 
Swedish Church. After several revisions it was given to the 
press in 1571, and was adopted at the church council at Uppsala 
the following year. It is especially suited to the times, holding in 
the main a middle course between the priest and the king power 
within the Church, between the Catholic and Reformed extremes 
in church ceremonies, and especially adapted to unite around it the 
Swedish people during this period of great disturbance. What 
especially does honor to the author is the great interest he mani- 
fests in Swedish culture. It contains the oldest school regulations 
of Sweden. The year following its adoption the universally esteemed 
archbishop passed away at the age of 74. 

Laurentius Andreae and Olaus Petri had powerfully assisted 
Gustavus Vasa in tearing down the Catholic Church in Sweden. It 
was left to Laurentius Petri to accomplisch the no less important 
mission of giving form and order to the Church which had well-nigh 
reached dissolution. In this work he manifested, in the course of 
years, greater and greater independence of the royal power to 
which he had at first perhaps been too subservient. Olaus was the 
warm-hearted, fearless reformer; the brother the learned theologian, 
the able administrator, the calm leader of the Swedish Church, who 
only in his controversial writings at times permitted a spirit of 
passion to control him. 

. In his private life Laurentius Petri was a shining example of 
pure and simple habits. In him we seek in vain for the pomp which 
generally characterized the Catholic archbishops. A large part of 
his income he devoted to the support of poor students. Through 



230 THE MODERN ERA 

his Bible translation, his interest in the promotion of education, 
his important and untiring labors for the Swedish evangelical 
church he earned for himself the gratitude and esteem of his own 
and all succeeding generations. 

b. The Internal Development of the Lutheran Church. 

1. Doctrinal Controversies. 

78. Conditions for the Controversies. There arose very 
early in the Lutheran Church two opposite tendencies. 
The one was represented by the Philippists, so named 
after their chief leader, Philip Melanchthon. They 
labored to unite the divided Churches, and to attain 
this end they were ready to make concessions and ac- 
commodations to both the Catholic and the Reformed 
doctrines. The other tendency was represented by 
theologians who were ready at any cost to preserve the 
truths brought to light by Martin Luther. They were 
accordingly the strict Lutherans. Among their number 
were such men as Luther's friend Amsdorf and the re- 
nowned church historian Flacius Illyricus. The strict 
Lutherans had their headquarter at the University of 
Jena, founded by the sons of the Elector John Frederick. 
The Philippists had theirs at Wittenberg and Leipzig. 

Flacius Illyricus is the most prominent representative of the 
controversial spirit which now began to manifest itself. He was a 
man of genius and great learning. Without respect to person he 
fought valiantly for the Lutheran faith, or what he regarded as 
the Lutheran faith, and dealt heavy blows at Catholics, Calvinists, 
Philippists, and others who appeared to him to depart from the 
true faith. How the Catholic Church had received a false and mis- 
directed development he sought to show in the so-called Centuries 
of Magdeburg, a large historical work which he and a few other 
theologians published, and in which the f raundulent character of the 
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals (§ 42) was for the first time fully set 
forth. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 231 

Through his contentious spirit he caused himself many enemies 
and much suffering. He first held a professorship at Wittenberg 
which he was compelled to give up on account of his opposition to 
the "Interim". He then spent some time in Magdeburg. In 1557 
he was appointed professor in the University of Jena, but during 
the synergistic controversy he was driven out together with those 
who sided with him (1561). From this time on he wandered about 
as a fugitive throughout Germany without finding any fixed place 
of abode. But neither poverty nor persecution nor loss of friends 
could crush his spirit. He remained the same unyielding champion 
of his convictions to his death, which occurred in 1575. 

Besides the controversies mentioned below (§§ 79—81) Flacius 
also participated in the Osiander and the Majorist controversies. 

In 1549 Osiander, a professor in the University of Konigsberg, 
propounded the theory that justification does not consist in God's 
declaring man free from sin and its penalty through the merits of 
Christ, but in this that Christ with his righteousness takes up his 
abode in man, causing a quickening into life; that it is a healing 
act, a continuous infusion of God's righteousness into man's 
nature. Thus man was directed to build his hope of salvation not 
upon the perfect atonement wrought by Christ for him, but upon 
the ever incomplete work of sanctification tvithin him. 

Osiander's views aroused opposition from many quarters. 
Among his opponents was one Francis Stancarus of Mantua, who 
propounded a new subject of contention. While Osiander held that 
Christ had become our righteousness with respect to his divine 
nature, Stancarus maintained that Christ was our righteousness 
only with respect to his human nature. In opposition to this view 
the Lutheran theologians held that after the incarnation Christ 
wrought as the God-man, the one nature participating in the work 
of the other. 

The Majorist Controversy concerned good works and their rela- 
tion to man's salvation. The Philippist George Major expressed 
the thought that good works were necessary for salvation. Flacius 
Illyricus and Amsdorf on the other hand declared that they were 
injurious. Both parties expressed a truth, but each presented only 
a one-sided view. It is evident that good work must be found 
where there is true faith, but it would be a fatal mistake for any 
one to build his hope of salvation upon them. 



232 THE MODERN ERA 

79. The Adiaphorist Controversy. After the battle of 
Miihlberg the Emperor promulgated the so-called Augs- 
burg Interim, a system of religious doctrine and practice, 
in which he required an almost complete return to 
Catholicism. The South German Protestants were com- 
pelled by imperial forces to accept it. It was left to the 
new Elector Maurice of Saxony to enforce it in North 
Germany. As he neither could nor would enforce it in 
its original form, he caused Melanchthon and a few 
other theologians to make a revision of it. This modi- 
fied form, known as the Leipzig Interim, maintained in all 
essential points the Lutheran doctrine, but retained the 
Catholic forms and practices. This latter circumstance 
was defended on the ground that in matters of indiffer- 
ence (adiaphora) concessions could be made. The strict 
Lutherans, however, regarded it as disloyalty to the 
truth, and thus a controversy arose which was not put 
down till the religious peace of Augsburg (1555) had 
removed all cause of dissension. 

80. The Synergistic Controversy. In the doctrine of sin 
and grace all the reformers followed St. Augustine, and 
like him taught an unconditional predestination. Lu- 
ther never formally renounced this doctrine, but in his 
later devotional works he directs men to seek refuge in 
the universal grace of God in Christ. Melanchthon, on 
the other hand, soon realized the dangerous practical 
results of the doctrine of predestination. He gradually 
went too far in the opposite direction and shortly after 
Luther's death defined free-will as an ability to lay hold 
by its own impulse of the grace of God (facultas se ad 
gratiam applicandi). Some of his followers sought still 
further to develop their master's views, and in their zeal 
were led to emphasize the freedom of the will and man's 
accountability as against God's grace to such an extent 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 233 

as to maintain that man has a natural power for good 
by which he is able, though in a weak and imperfect 
way, to co-operate with the Spirit of God in his conver- 
sion. Hence, they were called synergists (awepyeiv, to co- 
operate). Their opponents, however, went to an equally 
dangerous extreme. In order to emphasize more fully 
that to God alone belongs the honor of man's salva- 
tion, Flacius taught that original sin .is man's very 
essence and that man is converted against his will by 
an act of force on God's part. In this connection he 
developed the doctrine of predestination in a more rigid 
form than St. Augustine. To the more conservative 
minds, however, it became more and more evident, dur- 
ing the course of the controversy, that wmile man's con- 
version is the w T ork of God alone, man is capable of 
resisting the divine grace, and, hence, his conversion is 
effected through freedom and not by force, 

81. The Crypto-Calvinistic Controversy. The controversy 
begun by Luther and Zwingli regarding the Lord's Sup- 
per continued for a long time to disturb men's minds. 
It entered a new phase upon the appearence of John 
Calvin. There were many who thought that Calvin ap- 
proached Luther's view so closely that the difference 
was rather one of words than of fact. Melanchthon now 
sought to facilitate the union with the Reformed by 
issuing a new edition of the Augsburg Confession, known 
as the Altered Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana 
Yariata), in which the article on the Lord's Supper is 
expressed in such general terms as to include also Cal- 
vin's views (1540). This act was strongly condemned 
by most of the Lutherans. It was, however, some time 
before it became fully clear in what particulars the Cal- 
vinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper differed from the 
Lutheran. The first one to set this forth was a certain 



234 THE MODERN ERA 

minister in Hamburg, Joachim Westphal, in a paper 
published by him in 1552. After this the Calvinists 
dared to present their doctrines in Lutheran lands only 
in a Lutheran garb. Thus there arose a veiled Calvinism 
(Crypto-Calvinism), which caused many unfortunate 
controversies. During these contentions several smaller 
German states fell away from the Lutheran faith and 
passed over to the Eeformed Church. The most impor- 
tant of these was the Electoral Palatinate, which found 
in the Heidelberg Catechism of 1563 its symbolical book. 
For a time it seemed as if Saxony would follow the 
example, but here the Lutheran faith finally triumphed 
(1574). 

82. The Formula of Concord. In order to put an end to 
the controversies which had so long divided the Lu- 
theran Church and occasioned so many persecutions, a 
number of the most prominent of the German theologians 
met in the cloister of Berg at Magdeburg and prepared 
a new form of confession for the Lutheran Church 
(1577). From its irenical purpose it was called the 
Formula of Concord. On the whole its authors under- 
stood how to preserve the truths which had been 
brought to light during the foregoing controversies. It 
was evident, however, that this formula could not 
satisfy all. Hence, new complications arose when the 
princes in the various Lutheran states demanded that 
their theologians and pastors should subscribe to the 
same. It was first printed in 1580 in the so-called Book 
of Concord, which contained all the symbolical books of 
the Lutheran Church, even the three symbols handed 
down from the ancient Church. 

Never before or since has the interest in theological questions 
been as great as during this period. In these controversies the 
whole civilized world took a lively part. Even princes and statesmen 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 235 

joined in them; some with real independence of thought and 
knowledge of facts, others again merely followed the one or the 
other theological leader. 

In consequence of the religious intolerance of the times and the 
power of the princes in ecclesiastical matters these contests were 
fought out by outward force no less than by spiritual weapons. A 
few examples may be cited. In the Electoral Palatinate Frederick 
III., who had gone over to the Reformed faith, was succeeded by 
his Lutheran son Louis VI. (1576— 1583). The people were then 
compelled to return to the Lutheran faith, and the Reformed pas- 
tors were driven out. This proceeding was repeated in the reverse 
order when his successor, Frederick IV. , of the Reformed faith, as- 
cended the throne. And later (1685) when the Palatinate fell to a 
Catholic line of princes the Protestants were sorely oppressed and 
compelled to emigrate. 

In Saxony one Peucer, the physician to the Elector and son-in- 
law of Melanchthon, had served as leader of the Crypto-Calvinistic 
movement. After the Lutheran victory he was made to suffer a 
long imprisonment and his followers were exiled. 

The Spirit of toleration was no stronger among the Reformed 
as may be seen from Calvin's treatment of Michael Servetus (§ 73). 
And yet, in spite of all this, the religious persecution among the 
Protestants is hardly to be mentioned in comparison with that in- 
stituted among the Catholics. 

But over this dark picture a redeeming light is shed; for behind 
all this intolerance there was a religious earnestness which recognized 
in faith life's chiefest concern. At the same time the persecuted 
manifested a real heroism and, on the whole, patiently bore their 
sufferings without weakly yielding their conviction. 

2. Orthodoxy and Pietism. 

83. Orthodoxy. When the Lutheran Church had sym- 
bolically established its most important doctrines, 
earnest and successful efforts were made to apprehend 
and present the same in a scientific way and to define 
and differentiate them from all divergent views. There 
thus followed a flourishing* period in Lutheran theology 
and especially in the field of dogmatics. A number of 



THE MODERN ERA 



celebrated theologians contributed to this result, and 
among them John Gerhard (died 1637), a professor in 
the University of Jena, occupied the most prominent 
place, not only for his scientific precision and clearness, 
but also for his religious depth and earnestness. 

The activities of the Church extended to all classes 
and conditions of men with the view of placing them 




SpK^- 



John Arndt. 



under the influence and control of the true faith, and 
perhaps at no other time has society so generally 
clothed itself in Christian forms as during this period of 
orthodoxy in the Church. 

But this orthodox Christianity contained within it 
seeds of various false tendencies. Faith was made rather 
a matter of intellectual acceptance of the doctrines of 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 237 

the Church as true than of the heart's trustful devotion 
to God. Hence, there appeared in life more outward 
form and legal discipline than evangelical depth and 
fervency. The sermons contained little in the way of 
edification and consisted chiefly of dry dogmatic state- 
ments, which the people did not understand, and violent 
attacks upon opponents, which only served to arouse 
the passions. 

In the meantime men were not wanting who labored 
for a more vital Christianity, nay rather, some of the 
most spiritual preachers and writers of the Lutheran 
Church appeared during this period. Foremost among 
these was John Arndt, superintendent general of Celle 
(died 1621). Several of his devotional works have been 
translated into various tongues, especially his "True 
Christianity". Next to him the best known are perhaps 
Henry Miiller and Christian Scriver. Several renowned 
hymnologists also appeared, of whom the most cele- 
brated is Paul Gerhardt, many of whose fervent, spirit- 
ual hymns have been translated into both English and 
Swedish. 

In Sweden, too, there were many excellent men during 
the period, who were zealous both for pure doctrine and 
an earnest Christian life. To this class belonged the 
energetic bishop of Vesteras, Johannes Rudbeckius(died 
1646), the founder of the first Swedish gymnasium, and 
also the two renowned Swedish hymnologists, Haqvin 
Spegel (died as archbishop in Uppsala 1714) and Jesper 
Svedberg (died as bishop of Skara 1735). 

But notwithstanding the labors of these great men 
the one-sidedness of orthodoxy gradually gained the 
ascendancy, especially in Germany. Against it a power- 
ful reaction was needed, and happily the Church had 
within it the life force to call it forth. Of less im- 



238 THE MODERN ERA 

portance were the protests that came from the Mysti- 
cism, the Theosophy, and the Syncretism of the period. 
More in accord with the Lutheran spirit and more 
deeply affecting the life of the Church was the deep re- 
ligious movement known as Pietism. 

The most beautiful trait in the Christian life of the period was 
the devout family spirit. This was a child of the Reformation, 
which had restored to marriage and to family life the honored place 
which God had in the beginning assigned to them. Through a 
correct presentation of the spiritual priesthood of the believer the 
reformers could emphasize the fact that each individual Christian 
had a right and a duty to come before God immediately with his 
sacrifice of prayer and obedience and receive instruction in the 
Word of God, and more especially that it is the duty of each house- 
holder as priest of his house to gather his family to a common 
worship in the reading of Scripture, prayer, and song. But it re- 
quired more than one generation of training before the fathers were 
able to discharge this high duty. During the period of orthodoxy, 
however, this high aim had in general been attained. The day's 
work was then begun and ended with a common family worship. 
Grace was always said before meat and the return of thanks followed 
the meal. On Sunday afternoons the father gathered the family 
around him and read a portion of the Word of God or a sermon 
from some postil. Family and social occasions, as weddings, 
baptisms, etc. were opened by prayer and song. The holy com- 
munion was always preceded by fasting and prayer in the home. 
At the tolling of the bells mornings and evenings there was a cessa- 
tion of work, and all engaged in silent prayer. Family worship be- 
came a bond of union among all the members of the family — 
parents, children, servants. They felt themselves united before 
God and this contributed toward an outward union. It must not be 
denied, however, that these pious excercises were often only out- 
ward forms, and, hence, the instances of brutality and coarseness 
often found side by side with this formal piety. We should give 
due credit to the good features of the period and at the same time 
not overlook the defects. 

Haqvin Spegel was born in 1645 and was the son of a merchant in 
Ronneby, which then belonged to Denmark. The family was, how- 
ever, originally Swedish. The boy early lost his father and mother, 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 239 

but by the help of relatives he was enabled to pursue studies first 
at Lund and afterwards at various universities in other lands, 
especially in Germany. After his return home he became for a 
time private tutor to the celebrated Magnus Stenbock. In 1671 he 
received the master's degree from the new Univerity of Lund. He 
was ordained the same year and was shortly afterwards made 
court-chaplain to the queen-dowager. At the age of thirty he be- 
came first court-chaplain and confessor to the king and superinten- 
dent of the chaplains of the Swedish army. 

In this capacity he stood in very close relation to Charles XI. 
during his whole campaign in Southern Sweden. That the young 
king developed during these years a spirit of deep and earnest piety 
was largely due to Haqvin Spegel's influence. The latter was pres- 
ent at the battle of Lund,and on the day folio wing preached a powerful 
thanksgiving sermon in which he admonished all, high and low, to 
give God the honor of the victory and to extend a helping hand to 
the wounded, both friends and foes. 

At the close of the war he was appointed superintendent of 
Gothland, a delicate position as the island had lately belonged to 
Denmark and the people had not yet learned to transfer their 
patriotism to Sweden. He was not permitted to remain here 
long, however, for he was soon appointed bishop of Skara, in 1689. 
Six years later he was transferred to the see of Linkoping, and 
finally, in 1711, he was made archbishop by king Charles XII. All 
these positions he filled with earnest zeal, scrupulous faithfulness, 
and transcendent ability. 

When Sweden tore herself loose from the papal power, the 
highest authority in the Church here as in other Lutheran lands fell 
to the ruling prince. But affairs were long in an unsettled state. 
As a rule the bishops assumed a somewhat independent position, 
and as a result there were great differences in government and 
cult in the various dioceses. The energetic Charles XL sought to 
establish system and order even in this department, and during 
his reign the Swedish Church was given unity and uniformity and 
in many respects an excellent constitution, but at the same time it 
was made strongly dependent upon the royal authority. 

In this work of organization Spegel took an active part. Through 
his efforts a clause was inserted into the church law, making it in- 
cumbent upon the clergy to see that the young were taught to read 
1 'so that they could see with their own eyes what God had directed 
and commanded in his Holy Word." Before this there was no law 



240 THE MODERN ERA 

t 

requiring children to learn to read. The stern king took measures 
to enforce this regulation, and before long the ability to read was 
general among the younger generation. By this measure a long 
step had been taken toward popular education and culture, and the 
part Spegel took in this matter redounds to his lasting honor. 

At this time there was felt a general need of a new hymnal. 
Jesper Svedberg especially devoted himself to this matter and 
wrote many excellent hymns. Spegel was his principal assistant. 
In the hymnal of 1695 are found no less than 38 of his hymns, be- 
sides several translations by him. In the hymn-book of 1819 by 
Wallin there are still retained a score of Spegel's hymns. Simple 
in language, biblical in tone and content, and of great poetic beauty 
they are still an ornament to the Swedish hymnal. 

Even in the preparation of the Catechism published by bishop 
Olof Svebilius in 1689 Spegel had taken part. He was also the real 
leader in the new bible translation which was even then thought 
necessary. For certain reasons, however, it stopped at merely 
publishing a new and revised edition of the old translation, known 
as the Church Bible of Charles XII. 

Besides hymns Spegel also wrote various other poetical works, 
among which "God's Work and Rest" is the best known. Of 
greater importance, however, is his Swedish Church History, the 
first work of its kind published in Swedish. For the care and purity 
of the Swedish language he labored together with Jesper Svedberg 
with great zeal. As a preacher he also held a prominent position 
not so much for his depth and originality of thought as for his 
simple, biblical, and heart-winning presentation of the truth. 

He showed a remarkable liberality of thought with regard to 
the witch trials for which his times were so celebrated, and in which 
so many prominent men, laymen and clergy, manifested such gross 
superstition and cruelty. 

In his private as in his public life he distinguished himself for 
gentleness and moderation. Kind and gentle by nature, he was ever 
ready to show his sympathy for the suffering in both word and 
deed. His ability brought him rapid promotion, his kindness and 
modesty secured him many friends. 

As archbishop he was to serve during one of the most critical 
periods of Swedish history. The country was impoverished by long 
wars and reduced by famine. A restless and troubled spirit mani- 
fested itself especially at the diet of 1714, at which Spegel acted 
as spokesman for the clergy. Now as ever he showed a strong 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 241 

leaning toward the royal power. This displeased a large number 
of the clergy, and a strained relation arose between him and a ma- 
jority of his order. This struggle completely broke him down. He 
fell sick and was taken to Uppsala where after two months of 
wasting illness he did (1714) . Posterity has recognized in him one 
of Sweden's most prominent archbishops. 

84. Mysticism and Theosophy. In addition to that 
common mysticism which is found in all true Chris- 
tianity and which has found, beautiful expression in 
many devotional works, there was developed in the 
Lutheran Church that one-sided form of it usually un- 
derstood by the term Mysticism. Its foremost represent- 
ative was Caspar Schwenkfeld, a younger contemporary 
of Martin Luther. His followers, though often perse- 
cuted, have maintained themselves up to the present 
time. 

His chief departure from the Lutheran doctrine con- 
sisted in giving to the inner Word of God's Spirit in man 
a place superior to the outward Word of God in Scrip- 
ture, and in his conception of justification as a work 
within the believer, an incarnation of Christ in him, 
permeating him with the spirit of Christ until he be- 
comes one with Christ. 

While the mystic from the depths of his own spirit 
contemplates the mysteries of God, the theosophist 
in his meditations turns to external nature, seeking 
through these images of the supersensuous world to 
penetrate into the unfathomable depths of God. The 
earlier traces of theosophy were distorted by fantastical 
representations and gross superstition. It is presented in 
a purer form by Jacob Boehme, a shoemaker of Gorlitz 
(died 1624). While his religious views were formed from 
a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, yet they were 
not always scriptural. Little understood by his con- 
temporaries, Boehme had but few followers. At a later 

16 



242 THE MODERN ERA 

day his thoughts served to fructify German philosophy 
and also to give theological investigation impulses to 
a deeper penetration into the truths of Christianity. 

85. Syncretism. Against the exaggerated zeal and 
contentious spirit of orthodoxy solitary voices were 
raised. On the part of the Lutherans it was George 
Calixtus, professor at Helmstadt (died 1656). who. fol- 
lowing in the footsteps of the old Philippits, sought to 
lead the Christian denominations to peace and mutual 
forbearance. In the three symbols, common to all Chris- 
tians, he recognized the essentials of Christianity. 
Hence, he was led to a certain extent to underestimate 
the importance of the truths which the Lutheran Refor- 
mation had brought to a clearer light than before. This 
became a vulnerable point against which the orthodox 
zealots, who were unable to appreciate the nobility of 
his purpose, directed their attacks with great violence. 
From the masses Calixtus received but little sympathy 
as was natural at a time when, during the great strug- 
gle of the Thirty Years' War, the hostility of the different 
churches reached its climax. Consequently he gained 
but few adherents, who together with their leader were 
stigmatized as Syncretists. 

Two bishops in Sweden, Johannes Matthiae in Strang- 
nas and Terserus in Abo, expressed themselves in the 
same conciliatory spirit as Calixtus. Both were deposed, 
and the strict Lutheranism of Sweden was further 
strengthened by an act which gave the whole Book of 
Concord the force of a symbolical book for the Swedish 
Church. 

86. Pietism. Against the inordinate zeal and dead 
faith of the one-sided orthodoxy of the times.there arose 
a religious movement known as Pietism. It traces its 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 243 

origin to Philip Jacob Spener, who after successful la- 
bors as pastor in Frankfort-on-the-Main and in Dresden 
finally died as provost and member of the Consistory in 
Berlin, in 1705. He departed from the usual methods 
of orthodoxy and devoted himself to the preaching of 
the Word in a simple and practical way to the upbuild- 
ing of a Christian life. The older members of the con- 
gregation he sought to give a more thorough knowl- 
edge of the Bible by expounding the books of Holy Writ 
in their order; for the education of the younger members 
he used the method of catechisation, thus laying the 
foundation for our present system of catechetical in- 
struction of catechumens. Some of his members began 
of their own accord to hold meetings for the furtherance 
of true piety (collegia pietatis). Spener himself took the 
lead in these meetings to prevent their misdirection and 
to use them as a means for arousing a Christian life, 
especially at a time when the public worship offered few 
opportunities for spiritual instruction. The condition 
of the Church he set forth in a work published in 1675 
and known as "Pia Desideria", in which he also suggest- 
ed such remedies for the evils as he had himself used 
with good success. 

The movement started by Spener soon extended into 
wide circles. The most prominent accession to it was 
August Herman Francke, who labored for a long period 
of years as preacher and university professor at Halle 
up to his death in 1727. Through him Halle became 
the headquarters of Pietism, and at the university there, 
a large number of young men were educated who after- 
wards as pastors extended the Pietistic movement 
throughout all Lutheran Germany, and awakened a 
deeper spiritual life in the congregations. 

A beautiful monument of pietistic labors of love and 



244 THE MODERN ERA 

mercy is the large institution for the education and care 
of orphan children established at Halle through the un- 
tiring labors, faith, and prayer of August Herman 
Francke. 

Pietism has powerfully contributed towards the up- 
building of a Christian life and preserving it from the 
deadening effects of mere formalism. And yet from its 
very beginning it was characterized by a certain one- 
sidedness, which gradually became more and more 
marked. 1) The Pietists were more zealous for a holy 
life than a firm and rooted faith, and, in consequence, 
laid stress on the Law and sanctification, while the Gos- 
pel of Christ's atonement and the doctrine of justifica- 
tion based on it were pushed into the background. 
Hence, they developed a legalistic form of life and an 
exaggerated code of morals, condemning not only such 
practices as lead to sin and temptation, as for instance 
the use of strong drink, card-playing, etc., but also 
children's games and innocent amusements. 2) They 
had a special liking for smaller gatherings for worship 
(conventicles), and developed a tendency toward sep- 
aratism by forming smaller groups within the Church 
(ecclesiolae in ecclesia). 3) Their zeal for a holy life led 
them to underrate the importance of pure doctrine and 
they were thus unconsciously led to play into the hands 
of rationalism. 

August Herman Francke was born in Liibeck in 1663. He very early 
manifested an earnest childlike piety, and, hence, his father, a 
pious and able jurist, decided to have him study theology. His 
university studies, which he entered upon at Erfurt at the early 
age of fifteen, he afterwards continued at Kiel and Leipzig. At the 
last named place he became a tutor and with some companions 
organized the so-called Collegium Philobiblicum, which was at first 
designed for the scientific study of the Bible in the original text. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 



245 



Through Spener's influence it soon received a more practical and 
devotional character. 

During these years of study he departed from his childlike rela- 
tion to the Lord, and felt himself, as he afterwards says, drawn 
hither and thither by anxieties for future support, by ambition and 




August Herman Franke. 



a desire to learn everything, and by a seeking after friends and 
popularity. At the same time he felt that it was not well with 
him and he longed for something better. 

At the age of twenty-four he came to Ltineburg to pursue his 
study of the Bible still further under a celebrated teacher. Shortly 
after his arrival he was asked to preach a sermon. He consented 
to do so and chose for his text John 20: 31. As he began to study 



246 THE MODERN ERA 

his text he asked himself the question whether he himself had the 
faith which he was to preach to others. The more he thought upon 
it the more uncertain he became, and at last began to doubt whether 
he believed that there was a God or not. But at the same time his 
conscience was awakened. 

"I then looked back", he afterwards writes, "upon my past 
life, as one might look out over, a city from a high tower. At first 
I began to count my sins, but soon my eyes were opened to the 
fountain-head or source of them all, that is, my unbelief or false 
faith whereby I had so long deceived myself. Then I saw that all 
my past life, all that I had done and said and thought was a tissue 
of sin and an abomination before God. ' ' 

He thus spent several days in great distress. One evening he 
fell upon his knees and called upon "the God whom he did not know 
nor as yet believe in for help in his terrible condition, in case there 
really was a God. " His prayer was answered. As you turn a hand 
so his doubts vanished. He was fully assured of God's grace through 
Christ. He could think of God as his father and in his heart praise 
and bless him. A few days later he preached a sermon with great 
earnestness on the text which he had already chosen. 

After spending some time in Hamburg and making a few 
months' visit in Dresden where he stopped at Spener's home and 
with him formed an intimate friendship, he returned once more to 
Leipzig. He now began to lecture on the Epistles of St. Paul to 
large audiences. He also infused new life into the collegium philo- 
biblicum, and in general effected a deep spiritual awakening among 
the students. The one-sidedness and exaggeration of his less con- 
servative followers gave the theological faculty, who no doubt felt 
jealous of the successful young teacher, occasion to forbid his bible 
lectures. Thus began the pietistic controversy, which so long 
disturbed the Lutheran Church and which was often conducted with 
intense passion. Francke himself engaged in the controversy only 
when compelled to do so, but always with calmness and good sense 
without, however, yielding what he regarded as right. 

In 1690, after having spent some time at his home, he was 
called as pastor to Erfurt, where he labored for some time with 
untiring zeal and much success. But his opponents in Leipzig were 
active even here, and in the fall of the following year, without 
trial or conviction, he was deposed and driven from the city. 

About this time the new University of Halle was founded, and 
upon Spener's recommendation Francke was called there as prof es- 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 247 

sor and appointed as pastor of a little congregation outside of the 
city. In the beginning of 1692 he departed for his new field of 
labor. 

Here a large field was opened to him. As professor he exerted 
a powerful influence. Like his colleagues in the theological faculty, 
who were all animated by the same spirit as himself, he labored 
that the theological students might not only be equipped with the 
necessary knowledge, but also be trained as true Christians. "Who- 
soever does not use the Word of God", he would often say, "to the 
end that he may himself become a true Christian has no real benefit 
from it even though he were a master in the Scriptures." He also 
gave a number of lectures and discourses for the practical training 
of the students as preachers and pastors. 

As pastor of a poor and ignorant congregation Francke had a 
further opportunity to do the Lord's work. Twice each Sunday 
and besides every Friday he preached. His sermons made a deep 
impression. And this was not strange. They were plain and 
simple in form. Bitterness against opponents, learning, and 
artistic finish were carefully avoided. On the other hand they con- 
tained earnest testimonies of man's sins and God's grace and 
powerful admonitions to a holy life. They were thus in the truest 
sense edifying. Their length did not tire the congregation at a 
time when people were less given to amusement than they are 
to-day. They have been published in several editions and like 
Francke's other works they have been a source' of great blessing 
to the evangelical Church. 

But Francke did not content himself with only preaching. He 
arranged daily prayer-meetings, first in his own house and later, 
when the numbers grew too large, in the Church, when he also in- 
troduced catechisation. Finally they were held twice a day, in the 
morning for the older people and in the afternoon for children and 
young people. Meetings were also held in private houses. Much 
stress was laid on visiting the sick. Great as was his capacity for 
work he was unable to attend to all these duties himself, but had 
to entrust part of his pastoral work to a like-minded assistant. 

Francke believed, and therefore he spoke. But he proved his 
faith not only by words but also by deeds. We have a magnificent 
monument of his faith and love in his orphan home in Halle and the 
associated Franckean Institutions, which still exist. From a 
small beginning they grew with* incredible rapidity and finally 
attained a surprising magnitude and compass. 



248 THE MODERN ERA 

They originated in this way. According to an old custom poor 
children gathered at Francke's home every Thursday to receive 
alms. Upon inquiry it was found that these children were in the 
highest degree ignorant. To secure the necessary means for re- 
moving this ignorance, as his own income was very insignificant, 
he placed in his reception room a collection-box for voluntary con- 
tributions. Above this box he put 1 John 3: 17 and under it 2 
Cor. 9:7. By and by he found 4% thalers placed in the box. Tak- 
ing this out he exclaimed, ' 'This is a splendid capital. With it I 
will establish a poor-school.' ' Books were bought and a student 
engaged as teacher. The school was first held in Francke's own 
house and afterwards in a rented house near by. The number of 
pupils grew apace. Before long the burghers sent their own 
children to the school and paid for their tuition. 

Francke was deeply interested in his school. In his younger 
days he had himself taught a primary school. In Leipzig he had 
given lectures on methods of teaching, and as pastor he had in his 
catechisation had further opportunities for practice in this art. 
Everything was arranged in a most prartical way and the cause 
was embraced by the public with an ever increasing confidence. 
One school arose after the other. Besides the poor-school and the 
burgher-school there were soon a pedagogium for boys of the higher 
ranks and a Latin school. 

In 1698 Francke laid the foundation of a large building in which 
all of these schools were to be conducted. He had not collected the 
means beforehand, but trusted in the Lord for it, and he did not 
trust in vain. During the progress of the work he had many won- 
derful evidences of answer to prayer. Often the need was great, 
but the help was near. The poor gave their mites, the rich gave 
more abundantly, and even the higher classes made contributions. 
Within a few years the building was completed. On the front side 
Francke caused the following inscription to be made: "They that 
wait upon the Lord shall renew their strength; they shall mount 
up with wings as eagles (Is. 40: 31)." On each side of the inscrip- 
tion was a picture of an eagle mounting upward toward the sun. 

With this large institution a bookstore and a drugstore were 
connected and a little later there was added a school for missiona- 
ries who wereto be sent to the Danish possessions in East India. Then 
followed an institution for the spreading of the Bible, which still 
exists. Thus one building arose after another until the whole 
formed a little city by itself. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 



249 



At the time of Francke's death (1727) there were enrolled in all 
2,200 pupils, of whom 134 were orphans. Besides the 8 inspectors, 
167 male and 8 female teachers were employed. The teachers were 
principally theological students who as pay for their work received 
free dinners and suppers. 

Francke was a most prominent educator. He desired to give 
to training a practical character, and, hence, during recesses and 




The Franckean Institution in Halle. 



between hours he had the children engage in various handiwork. 
But like all human efforts his too were imperfect. His teachers 
lacked the necessary training. The pietistic one-sidedness mani- 
fested itself in the disproportionately large number of hours for 
religious instruction and in the length of the prayers with which 
the instruction was opened and closed. By strict discipline and 
gloomy seriousness a premature religion was to be infused into the 
children. This was apt in some cases to foster dullness, indifference, 



250 THE MODERN ERA 

and even hypocrisy. These defects became more marked after 
Francke's death, when mere forms were to accomplish what a 
great and warm-hearted personality alone can do. 

But in spite of these peculiarities Francke must be counted as 
one of the very greatest men in the Lutheran Church. He was 
indeed a man of prayer and of faith which manifests itself in deeds 
of love. For the poor and the despised of this world he labored 
with wonderful self-denial. When he began his poor-school he ab- 
stained for a time from his evening meal for the benefit of the 
children. He died, as has already been remarked, in 1727. He be- 
longs to the few whose names shall never die. 

87. Pietism and "Laseri" in Sweden. The pietistic move- 
ment began to spread in Sweden during the reign of 
Charles XII. But it never developed a large following, 
partly because it was less called for, as orthodoxy never 
attained its worst features there, and partly because of 
the government opposition. By the so-called Conventicle 
Act of 1726 all private meetings for common devotion 
were forbidden under heavy penalties. 

During the 18th century there arose in various parts 
of Sweden, especially in the north (Norrland), a move- 
ment closely allied to pietism and commonly known as 
Laseri (Heading), The readers like the pietists had a special 
liking for conventicles, but laid so much stress on pure 
doctrine that beside the Bible they scarcely dared to 
read any other works than Luther's. 

3. The Period of Illumination. 

88. The Illumination in England and France. During the 
16th and 17th centuries scientific and philosophical in- 
vestigation had rapidly advanced and prepared the way 
for a new philosophy of life. This was developed first 
in England. In religious matters it rejected all author- 
ity save that of reason and sought to build up a system 
of religion independent of revelation. Such a system 
appeared in Deism or Naturalism. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 251 

Lord Herbert of Cherbury (died 1648) has been 
called the Father of Deism. The only source of knowl- 
edge of the supersensuous world was to him reason and 
nature. From this source he deduced three super- 
sensuous ideas: that there is a God, that the human 
soul is immortal, and that man must be virtuous to 
attain a state of bliss after death. In the Godhead 
there is but one person, the Father. Jesus of Nazareth 
was only a remarkable man. God created the w T orld, 
but after the creation he has no immediate concern for 
it, but allows it to develop according to the natural law 
governing it. 

Through gifted writers the deistic philosophy secured 
a larger public and passed from the British Isles to the 
Continent, where it gained numerous adherents in both 
the Catholic and the Protestant Church. In France it 
was proclaimed in a spirit of hostility to Christianity by 
the renowned writer Voltaire, who with the weapons of 
scorn and satire lashed the Catholic Church, and hoped 
"with ease to tear down what twelve poor fishermen 
had built up." Another author, Rousseau, formulated a 
sort of emotional deism as a religion for his uature- 
children, w T ho were to grow up untouched by the un- 
natural customs and social institutions of the times. 

The French Encyclopedists went still further in the 
same direction. They received their name from the cir- 
cumstance that their leading men, as Diderot and 
d'Alembert, compiled an immense encyclopedia, which 
was designed to contain all the learning necessary for a 
most comprehensive education and a new philosophy of 
life. The Encyclopedists proclaimed a pure materialism. 
They denied every thing supersensuous, and represented 
selfishness as the only motive for human action and 
earthly happiness as man's highest goal. 



252 THE MODERN ERA 

89. The Illumination in Germany. The culture resulting 
from this intellectual activity was called The Illumination. 
It also entered Germany and there carried away a large 
majority of the educated classes. It is true that it did 
not there cause the same religious dissolution as in 
France, but it contributed in a high degree toward 
weakening the belief in revelation. It first advanced the 
theory that the Scriptures, indeed, contained a kernel of 
truth, but that this was enclosed in a mass of supersti- 
tious notions. With these superstitions even Christ and 
his Apostles mixed their doctrines, in order not to alien- 
ate from them their superstitious contemporaries (Sem- 
ler's Theory of Accommodation). It was, therefore, nec- 
essary to subject the Scriptures to the fire of rational 
criticism that the true gold might be separated from 
the dross. But after this process nothing remained but 
the same meager contents that Deism had to offer. 
As this movement made reason (ratio) the highest 
authority in religious matters it was given the name of 
Rationalism. 

The philosopher Kant, professor at the University of 
Konigsberg (died 1804), brought rationalism to its 
climax and at the same time to the point of self-dissolu- 
tion. According to him, the three supersensuous ideas, 
God, Liberty (as a prerequisite of virtue), and Immortality 
were not derived from divine revelation in Scripture, nor 
through deductions from nature, but were based upon 
the simple fact that man has a conscience. At the same 
time he declared that they belonged to a realm into 
which reason limited by sense could not penetrate. 
They could, therefore, not be demonstrated. They had 
to be accepted as practical postulates, for otherwise the 
unconditional commands of conscience would have no 
significance. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 253 

During the latter half of the 18th century rationalism 
held sway in the Lutheran Church. Under its control 
faith came near being extinguished and religion changed 
into a superficial system of ethics, valued according to 
its utility for this life. Divine service became superficial, 
the vigorous and spiritual prayers and psalms were ex- 
changed for others, poor in both spiritual contents and 
poetic inspiration. From the pulpits were heard either 
pompous orations on the Supreme Being or dry moral 
discourses in a semi-Pelagian spirit. At times the con- 
gregations were treated to lectures on practical sub- 
jects, such as agriculture, gardening, etc. The religious 
decay was accompanied as usual by a spirit of levity 
and a laxity in morals. 

But even rationalism had some good results. As a 
rule toleration w r as written upon its banner, and though 
this w T as the result of religious indifference, yet in- 
tolerance had to yield to the principles of religious free- 
dom. 

90. Champions for a more positive Christianity were, how- 
ever, not wanting during this period. In the first place 
there were the so-called Bible Theologians, who follow- 
ing the example of J. A. Bengel (consistorial counselor 
in Stuttgart, died 1752), earnestly studied the Script- 
ures in order to gain a deeper insight into God's plan of 
salvation and a connected history of revelation. There 
were also men who labored in the spirit which prevailed 
during the best days of orthodoxy and pietism. A large 
number of those, however, who sought to maintain the 
Bible faith joined the school of super-naturalism, which, 
indeed, sought to defend the theory of supernatural re- 
velation, but made too many concessions to rationalism. 
And finally the Herrnhuter community formed an im- 



254 THE MODERN ERA 

portant nursery for the preservation of the belief in 
Christ the crucified. 

4. The Nineteenth Century. 

91. The Opposition to Rationalism. Rationalism has, in- 
deed, maintained itself even to the present day, but only 
through a constant struggle with an overpowering op- 
position, which has deprived it of control in the Church. 
This opposition has eminated from different sources. 

a) The Romantic School (Hardenberg, the Schlegel 
brothers, et al.) was an esthetic-literary movement 
which tried to counteract the one-sided stress of the 
Illumination upon reason by presenting the sphere of 
the sensibilities and the imagination. But the leaders 
of this school often lost themselves in vague and shad- 
owy notions, and as they were enthusiasts for mediaeval 
ideals they had a predilection for the Catholic Church 
and to it two of them deserted. 

b) German Philosophy after Kant sought a remedy 
for the superficial reasoning of rationalism in a more 
thorough scientific knowledge, and for the disposition 
to place a barrier between God and creation it advanced 
the theory that the force in the universe is God. But 
this was not a return to Christianity. It was only sub- 
stituting patheism for deism. Neither had it set aside 
the principles of rationalism for it too accepted human 
reason as the highest judge in religious matters. Many, 
it is true, thought that the philosopher Hegel (professor 
at the University of Berlin, died 1831), in his system 
had reached a full agreement with biblical Christianity, 
but this agreement was only apparent, as it was built 
upon a misinterpretation of Bible truths. This soon 
became evident. His followers carried the doctrines of 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 



255 



their master to their logical conclusion and landed at 
last in a denial of God and a deification of man. 

c) Schleiermacher (professor at the University of Ber- 
lin, died 1834), finally wrested the scepter of theological 
learning from rationalism. "Keligion", said he, "is not a 
knowing"— as ra- 
tionalism would 
have it — "nor a 
willing" — as one- 
sided pietism had 
assumed — "but 
a feeling", a feel- 
ing of absolute 
dependence upon 
God. Theology 
presents the his- 
torical develop- 
ment of this feel- 
ing in the Church, 
and, hence, has 
an entirely differ- 
ent problem from 
that of philoso- 
phy, which only 
seeks the ulti- 
mate cause of all 
things. Schleier- 
macher 's conception of religion was, however, exceed- 
ingly one-sided, and he did not restore to the Church 
biblical Christianity. The God revealed in the "feeling" 
was not according to his conception a personal being 
raised above all worlds, but rather, according to the 
pantheistic view, an impersonal force. Jesus of Nazareth 




Schleiermacher. 



256 THE MODERN ERA 

was not "God revealed in the flesh", but only a perfectly- 
sinless ideal-man. 

d) The movements which most powerfully contrib- 
uted toward freeing the Church from the sway of ra- 
tionalism and reviving the Christian faith originated in 
a newly aroused interest in the confession of the Church, 
and, closely connected with it, a new religious awaken- 
ing within the congregations. Both of these trace their 
beginning to the appearance of Claus Harms. The latter, 
a pastor of Kiel, on the occasion of the third centenary 
of the Reformation, in 1817, like a new Luther published 
95 theses, in which he accuses his times of having fallen 
away from the doctrines of Luther and set up weak 
human reason on the throne of the Church as a new 
pope. From this time forth to the end of his life, in 
1855, he labored with voice and pen for a more earnest 
Christian life and a more loyal devotion to the confes- 
sion of the Church, Many theologians went still further 
in the direction in which he had struck out, and the con- 
troversies which arose in consequence of the efforts at 
union between the two Protestant Churches in Germany 
aroused a warm enthusiasm for the Lutheran faith. At 
the same time there occurred a deep spiritual awakening 
in the congregations, which made religion a matter of 
earnest heart concern to thousands of people. In the 
spirit of the old pietists, but with greater concern for 
pure doctrine, efforts were now made in behalf of prac- 
tical Christianity. Special stress was laid upon reaching 
down to the lower strata of society, and many institu- 
tions arose for the prosecution of the Home Mission 
work,* while at the same time powerful efforts were 
made to extend Christianity to the heathen world. 

* Such for instance was Fliedner's Deaconess Institute at Kaiserswerth, which 
served as a model for many others in Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, England, 
Russia, and other lands. 






THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 257 

92. Conditions of the Church in Sweden. Rationalism 
spread also in Sweden and held sway in wide circles dur- 
ing the Gustavian Period, and yet it never succeeded here, 
to the same extent as in Germany, in pushing Bible faith 
into the background. The Church literature— the Book 
of Service (1811), the Lindblom Catechism (1810), the 
Hymn-Book (1819)— had, indeed, lost much of the 
vigor that characterized the earlier works, but they 
were far less diluted than the corresponding works in 
other lands. The best of all was the Hymn-Book, and 
the honor therefor belongs to the editor, the prominent 
hymnologist, J. 0. AVallin (archbishop in Uppsala, died 
1839). In the meantime efforts have recently been 
made to remove from these work the objectionable 
features introduced by rationalism. This has led to the 
issuing of a new 7 catechism (1878) and to a revision of 
certain parts of the Book of Service. The proposition 
for a new Irymnal is now under consideration. In this 
connection it may be mentioned that since the latter part 
of the 18th century a Bible commission has been en- 
gaged upon a new translation of the Bible. After more 
than a hundred years of labor the New Testament Ver- 
sion was reported to the Church Council of 1883. It 
was approved by the Council and adopted for use in 
churches and schools. In 1903 similar action was taken 
with regard to the Old Testament. With regard to 
public worship an important step w T as taken in 1860, 
when two new T series of Scripture lessons were adopted 
to be used by turns with the old gospel and epistle les- 
sons as texts for sermons. 

Efforts had long been made for the establishment of 
a central ecclesiastical office. This want w r as finally 
filled by the establishment of an ecclesiastical depart- 
ment. Church legislation has from ancient times been a 

17 



258 THE MODERN ERA 

prerogative of the king and the diet. A third power 
has recently been added in the establishment of the 
Church Council in 1868. It meets every five years. 

Sweden too was blessed during the 19th century with 
a comprehensive religious awakening. Already at the 
opening of the century, Henry Schartau (cathedral 
curate in Lund, died 1825) came forward in a biblical 
and confessional spirit against the prevailing skepticism 
and religious indifference. From that time there has 
been an ever increasing number of the clergy who have 
labored for a more earnest spiritual life in the congre- 
gations. Even laymen have taken an active part in 
this work. The most prominent among them is no 
doubt C. O. Kosenius (died 1868) of the Norrland 
pietists. The movement started by him and his asso- 
ciates has its chief center of activity in the Evangelical 
Fatherland Association (Evangeliska Fosterlands- 
stiftelsen) which still continues its work for home and 
foreign missions in a loyal church spirit. Others have 
manifested separatist tendencies. They have opposed, 
to a certain extent, the doctrines of the Church, but 
more especially her cult and constitution, and united 
themselves into separate associations or congregations 
without formally withdrawing from the Church. During 
recent times several sects have found entrance, and some 
of them have under the protection of the Dissenter-Act of 
1873 formed their own organizations and received rec- 
ognition from the state. 

Five bishoprics were established in Sweden during the early 
period of the Church there. They were Uppsala, Linkoping, Skara, 
Strangnas, and Vesteras. A little later Vaxjo became an episcopal 
see. After the peace of Roskilde, in 1658, by which the southern 
provinces of Sweden were ceded to her by Denmark, the bishopric 
of Lund was added. A few years later Goteborg, which had for 
some time had supeintendents, was erected into a bishopric, 1665. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 259 

Eastern Smaland, Varmland, Gothland, and the provinces north of 
Helsingland had also for a time had superintendents until episcopal 
sees were established in Calmar 1678, in Carlstad, Visby, and 
Hernosand 1772. The diocese of Lulea was separated from that of 
Hernosand in 1904. 

In the Chapter the bishop presides ex officio. His second is 
the dean wherever that office exists (in all the bishprics, except 
Hernosand and Visby). The members of the Chapter are further, 
in the university towns, the professors of theology, and in the 
other episcopal towns, the lectors (professors) in the local colleges 
(hogre allmanna laroverk). Besides the Chapters, which are also 
called Consistories, there are two other similar bodies; the Consis- 
tory of Stockholm and the Royal Court-Consistory. In the former 
the archbishop presides ex officio, when he is present, otherwise 
the pastor primarius performs the duty. Other members are the 
Lutheran pastors of Stockholm. In the Court-Consistory the first 
court-chaplain presides. The members are certain court- and 
garrison-chaplains of Stockholm. 

The members of the chapter and the clergy of the diocese are the 
electors in the choice of a bishop, and from the three candidates re- 
ceiving the highest number of votes the king appoints the bishop. The 
archbishop is elected by the clergy of the archiepiscopal see ( Uppsala) 
and all the chapters of the kingdom. The consistory of Stockholm 
exercises the same privileges as a chapter. Where the bishop is 
also vice-chancellor (Uppsala and Lund) the professors may also 
vote. The bishop in conjunction with the chapter exercises the 
diocesan government, ordains the ministers for the diocese, and 
superintends them in the discharge of their duties. Through visi- 
tations he learns the condition of the various congregations. The 
archbishop ordains the other bishops, but exercises no authority 
over them. They are wholly independent in their official capacities. 

The dioceses are divided into Contracts (kontrakt) in each of 
which the bishop appoints a dean, or provost (prost) to assist 
him in the care of the contract. In each contract are several pas- 
torates, each composed of one or more congregations. The care of 
the pastorates is laid in the hands of a pastor (kyrkoherde) who 
may be assisted by one or more curates or adjuncts. With regard 
to the manner of appointing pastors the pastorates are divided into 
consistorial, regal, and patronal pastorates. In the consistorial and 
regal pastorates the chapter nominates three candidates and from 



260 THE MODERN ERA 

them the voters of the pastorate may choose. The one who 
receives the highest number of votes in a consistorial pastorate 
then receives his commission from the chapter. In the regal pas- 
torates, on the other hand, the king appoints, and he may name 
either one of the nominees or some one else, who may have applied 
directly to His Majesty. In both the consistorial and regal pas- 
torates, however, the congregations have the right to call in a forth 
man to preach a trial sermon. In such a case the king always ap- 
points, even in the former class, but he is there limited in his choice 
to one of the four who have preached trial sermons. To the pat- 
ronal pastorates certain individuals call the pastor without consult- 
ing the wishes of the congregation. 

The particular affairs of each congregation are considered and 
decided upon by the voting members in congregational meetings. 
A church council is appointed to assist the pastor or his representa- 
tive in the care of the congregation and also a school board for the 
management of school matters. 

As regards church legislation no serious difficulty arose from 
the fact that it was in the hands of the king and the diet as long 
as the members of the diet were required to be members of the 
Swedish Lutheran Church, and the clergy as a separate estate 
could exercise an influence in the actions of the diet. But new 
conditions have arisen. Dissenters have secured admission to seats 
in the diet, and the clergy as such are no longer represented there. 
Hence, it became necessary for the Church to secure in the Church 
Council an organization through which it could exercise an influence 
in ecclesiastical legislation and in which it could manage its own 
general affairs. The Council is composed of 60 members,* half 
clergymen and half laymen. Of the clergy 13 are members ex 
officio, namely, the 12 bishops and the pastor primarius; 4 are dele- 
gates from the theological faculties of Uppsala and Lund. The 
remaining 13 are elected one from each diocese and one from the 
city of Stockholm. The archbishop is ex officio president. 

Education has advanced with giant strides during the 19th 
century. In the common school law of 1842 it was prescribed that 
each congregation should have at least one school. Since that time 
the schools have rapidly advanced both in number and excellency. 
Higher education, too, has made rapid progress thanks to the 

* Since the establishment of Lulea as a separate diocese and until Calmar is 
united with Vaxjo. as has been decided, there are 64 members: 14 ex officio and 14 
elected clerical delegates and 32 lay delegates. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH 



261 



liberality manifested for its support both by individuals and the 
state. 

The parish catechisation still in use grew out of the house- 
visitation and Christian catechisation enjoined upon all pastors by 
the Church law of 1686. In 1743 they were established by a royal 
decree. Confirmation as a solemn close of the Christian instruction 
of the young was gradually introduced during the 18th century, 
but it was first legally establishe d and ordered by the Book of 
Service of 1811. 

Many able men labored 
in the Swedish Church 
during the 18th and 19th 
centuries both for the de- 
velopment of doctrine and 
the upbuilding of a Chris- 
tian life. Among them 
may be mentioned in the 
first place Anders Norborg 
(died 1767), whose postil 
has been a precious book 
of devotion to many. A 
powerful preacher of the 
divine law, of righteous- 
ness, and repentance was 
Lars Linderoth (died 1811 ) , 
Samuel Odman (died 1828) 
and Johan Henrik Thoman- 
der (died as bishop in Lund 
1865) rendered great ser- 
vice to the Church, the 
former as head of the 
seminary in Uppsala and the latter as head of a similar institution 
in Lund. As an excellent hymnologist may be mentioned Frans 
Michael Franzen, bishop in Hernosand (died 1847). 

During the 19th century a number of institutions arose designed 
to promote the cause of the Swedish Church. For this purpose Dr. 
P. Fjellstedt (§ 113) founded his school in Stockholm in 1856. It 
was removed to Uppsala in 1859 and still bears the name of the 
founder. Its aim is to educate pious and gifted young men for the 
ministry. From 1851 the Swedish Deaconess Institute in Stock- 
holm dates its existence. Under the supervision of Dr. J. C. Bring 




P. Fjellstedt. 



262 THE MODERN ERA 

(1861—1898) it enjoyed a rapid and steady development which still 
continues. In hospital, poor-houses, orphan homes, and above all 
in the work of congregations large numbers of the ' 'sisters" are 
employed. A Deacon Institute was established at Gafle in 1898 
and removed to the estate Skondal immediately south of Stockholm 
in 1905. The "brothers" trained here are employed in poor-houses, 
hospitals, training schools, and the care of congregations. 



C. THE REFORMED CHURCH. 

93. The Reformed Church in the Netherlands. Among the 
liberty loving people of the Netherlands, where the 
Brethren of the Common Life had labored no less for 
true Christianity than for humanistic culture, the 
Keformation early secured a foot-hold. Before long the 
majority of the people in the northern provinces em- 
braced the doctrines of John Calvin. A cruel persecu- 
tion followed which even during the reign of Charles V. 
brought imprisonment and death to a large number of 
people. It raged with still greater fury during the reign 
of his son and successor Philip II. of Spain and the 
Netherlands. When the latter prince attempted to 
suppress even political freedom the oppressed people 
arose in defence of their religion and civil rights. 

The Protestants had already united around a com- 
mon confession in 1561. By the Union of Utrecht in 
1579, they united still more closely for mutual aid and 
protection. With remarkable perseverance and success 
they afterwards maintained their position against the 
violence of the Spaniards, who were finally compelled to 
grant a twelve years' truce in 1609, and afterwards by 
the Treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, to acknowledge the 
complete independence of the Protestant Netherlands, 
which then embraced about the same territory as the 
present Kingdom of Holland, or the Netherlands. 



THE REFORMED CHURCH 263 

When the heroic struggle for Dutch independence was 
over differences in religious views led to a division 
among the Protestants themselves. Arminius, a pro- 
fessor at the University of Leyden, rejected Calvin's doc- 
trine of predestination and advanced the doctrine of the 
freedom of the will in man's conversion. He had many 
followers who were known after him as Arminians. For 
political reasons Prince Maurice, the stadtholder of the 
Netherlands, opposed the Arminians and at the Synod of 
Dort (1618—19), to which nearly all the Reformed 
Churches had sent delegates, he succeeded in having 
their doctrines condemned. The Arminians then for a 
time formed a proscribed sect, but in 1630 they were 
granted religious freedom. At the same time the Nether- 
lands opened their doors and offered a place of refuge 
to the persecuted of nearly every form of Christian 
belief, thus setting a shining example of religious tolera- 
tion at a time when religious freedom was practically 
unknown in other lands. 

94. The Reformed Church in France. Into France, too, 
the doctrines of the Reformation made an early en- 
trance and secured numerous adherents, especially 
among the upper and educated classes. These Protest- 
ants, here known as Huguenots, were cruelly persecuted. 
But the persecutions only seemed to increase their 
numbers and to drive them into a closer union among 
themselves. Through the influence of Calvin, who from 
his headquarters at GeneA'a directed the reform move- 
ments in his native land, they organized themselves 
into congregations and at a General Synod in Paris in 
1559, they adopted a common confession of faith. 

The religious movement soon became involved in the 
political contentions which at this time so sorely 
afflicted France. Two celebrated families, the Bourbons 



264 THE MODERN ERA 

and the Guises, both connected with the royal house, 
contended with each other for the highest influence in 
the state. The Catholics gathered around the Guises, 
and the Bourbons sought their support among the 
Huguenots, who from this time became a political 
party. Thus arose the cruel Huguenot AVars of which 
general history gives an account. These wars were 
finally to be closed by the Treaty of Saint-Germain in 
] 570, which guaranted to the Huguenots full religious 
freedom anc^ in the main, the same privileges as the 
Catholics. This peace was, however, shamelessly broken 
by the horrible Massacre of St. Bartholomew's "Day in 
1572, when thousands of Huguenots were murdered in 
Paris. The example of Paris was followed by other 
cities throughout France, and untold numbers of 
Huguenots suffered death on account of their faith. 

The war broke out afresh. A permanent peace was 
not secured before Henry of Xavarre, the leader of the 
Huguenots, had ascended the French throne. To attain 
this object he was at length compelled to abjure his 
faith and become a Catholic, but by the Edict of Xantes, 
in 1598, he guaranteed to his former co-religionists al- 
most complete religious freedom, access to all secular 
offices and employments, and, for a time, possession of a 
number of fortified towns as pledges of good faith and 
places of refuge and defence. 

After this the Huguenots enjoyed a period of peace 
until the days of Louis XIV. This haughty despot 
could not regard himself as absolute sovereign in his 
kingdom as long as two million of his subjects had a 
different religion from his own. It was, therefore, an 
easy matter for the Jesuits to induce him to revoke the 
Edict of Xantes (1685). This was the signal for a perse- 
cution which for its cruelty is unparalleled in history. 



THE REFORMED CHURCH 265 

Many of the Huguenots now turned Catholics, but large 
numbers also showed themselves true heroes in the suf- 
ferings which they endured. Emigration was forbidden. 
But about fifty thousand families nevertheless succeeded 
in escaping from their fatherland, which thus lost a 
large part of its best, most cultivated and thrifty popu- 
lation. 

After the death of Louis XIV., the persecution some- 
what abated, but it was not wholly stopped until 
shortly before the Revolution, when the "illumination" 
had produced a greater toleration in matters of 
thought and opinion. The storms of the revolution 
shook even the Reformed Church in France. In 1802 it 
assumed, in a way, the position of a state church, as 
the state undertook to provide for its support and also 
claimed the right to exercise a certain supervision over 
its affairs. 

Dissatisfied with the unwarranted meddling in the 
internal affairs of the Reformed Church on the part of 
the state, as well as with the rationalistic spirit which 
controlled it, large numbers left it in 1849, and under 
the lead of Frederick Monod established a French Re- 
formed Free-Church, which for a time enjoyed great 
prosperity, but now seems to be in a decline. 

The persecution of the Huguenots marks a dark page in French 
history. Even before the revocation of the Edict of Nantes efforts 
were made by promise or threat to induce the Huguenots to turn 
Catholics. Those who yielded were rewarded with gifts of money, 
while those who remained true to their faith were subjected to the 
quartering of rude soldiers, who with perfect impunity could resort 
to almost any acts of violence they pleased (the so-called Dragon- 
nades) . Relapse to Protestantism was visited with heavy penalties. 
But the sufferings of the Huguenots were greatly increased after 
the revocation of the Edict. The dragonnades then became ab- 
solutely unbearable. A few examples of their barbarities may be 



2G6 THE MODERN ERA 

cited. The rough soldiers would light a candle and hold it close 
to the face of their unhappy hosts until the beard, eye-brows, hair, 
and skin were scorched. At other times they would place live coals 
in the hands of their victims and compel them to hold them while 
they repeated the Lord's Prayer. When the poor sufferers in their 
agony repeated the prayer too fast they were required to begin 
over again and repeat it more slowly. Some were chained to the 
wall or hung by their hands to the ceiling and then cruelly tortured. 
They were trampled under foot, pricked with spurs, had hot water 
or other injurious liquids poured into their mouths. Some were 
tortured with sleeplessness as the soldiers took turns to sit by them 
night and day to keep them awake. No wonder that those who 
were less established in their faith sought to escape from these 
tortures by entering the "only saving Catholic Church. " Flatterers 
praised Louis XIV. for these misdeeds as a new Constantine the 
Great. But the better Catholics were forced to admit that conver- 
sions brought about by such means were of little value. 

In these dark pictures it is a redeeming feature to see that in 
spite of their sufferings the majority of the Huguenots remained 
true to their convictions. Their pastors were ordered to leave the 
country forthwith, but many remained in the forests and mountains 
to administer comfort and consolation to their suffering brethren. 
If they were found they were at once brought to the block or 
chained to the galleys. The same fate awaited the laymen who 
were found trying to flee the country. And yet by secret paths 
and through untold sufferings and privations immense numbers 
succeeded in making their escape. 

Many beautiful traits of Christian charity were also revealed. 
The Protestant nations vied with one another in offering homes to 
the exiles. Most of them found refuge in England, Holland, and 
Germany, but some extended their flight to the Scandinavian lands, 
to America, and even to South Africa. As many of them were 
skilled laborers they contributed largely to the upbuilding of in- 
dustries wherever they settled. Henceforth France was no longer 
the chief manufacturing country in Europe. Other lands arose to 
compete with her. The exiles also contributed to the spread of 
the French language and French customs which is one of the main 
reasons for the supremacy of French culture in Europe during the 
18th century. 

To France these persecutions brought spiritual and material 
ruin, which it has been difficult for her to repair. The French 



THE REFORMED CHURCH 267 

Church had condescended to fight her battles with carnal instead of 
spiritual weapons, and she had at the same time drained herself of 
her best powers by the expulsion of the Jansenists (§ 107) . Hence, 
she fell into a state of lethargy which laid her open to the inroads 
of advancing infidelity; and the sufferings she endured during the 
French Revolution she had caused herself by her religious perse- 
cutions. 

95. The Reformed Church in England. In England too 
the Reformation spread early, and even here its ad- 
herents were subjected to cruel persecutions started by 
king Henry VIII. The latter had sought in a pamphlet 
to refute the doctrines of Luther and for these efforts 
the Pope rewarded him with the title of "Defender of the 
Faith." Shortly afterwards, however, a quarrel arose 
between them, as the Pope refused to grant the king's 
petition for a divorce. The king then broke all connec- 
tion with Rome and made himself the head of the Eng- 
lish Church. He did not mean, however, to renounce the 
Catholic faith, but continued as before to persecute the 
friends of the Reformation. 

Upon the breach with Rome, Henry appointed Thom- 
as Cranmer as archbishop of Canterbury. This weak 
but well meaning man was secretly devoted to the 
Reformation and did all he could to further its cause. 
On the death of Henry VIII. , in 1547, when a Protest- 
ant regency was established during the minority of 
Henry's son, Edward VI., Cranmer threw off the mask 
and worked openly for the Reformation of the English 
Church. The work was soon checked, however, when 
upon the early death of Edward, his Catholic half-sister, 
Mary the Bloody, ascended the throne (1553). The 
fires of persecution were again started, and even Cran- 
mer was burned at the stake (1556). 

Fortunately Mary's reign was short (1553—1558). 
Her half-sister Elizabeth, who succeeded her on the 



268 THE MODERN ERA 

throne, soon placed herself on the side of Protestantism. 
At a synod in London, in 1562, the foundations were 
laid for a new church organization. A confession of 
faith was here adopted, the so-called Thirty-nine Articles, 
which in the main embraced the doctrinal views of Cal- 
vin, but with a milder form of predestination. In gov- 
ernment, rites, and practices, however, it differed 
widely from Calvinism. The sovereign was recognized as 
head of the Church, and the office of bishop was retained 
as a divine institution, hence, the name Episcopal Church. 
The mother tongue was used in the services, but a large 
number of Catholic practices were retained. The divine 
service was more definitely prescribed in the Book of 
Common Prayer, which was recognized as a symbolical 
book. 

There were many Englishmen who were not satisfied 
with this reformation. They urged that all Catholic 
practices should be abolished and that the Church 
should govern itself by means of presbyteries and syn- 
ods. They were accordingly consistent Calvinists. On 
account of their desire to purify the Church from all 
Catholic practices they were known as Puritans. The 
Puritans and others who would not accept the ordinan- 
ces of the Established Church were commonly known as 
noncomformists. The government sought to suppress 
them by severe penalties, but this only seemed to in- 
crease their opposition. From the ranks of the Puritans 
came the Independents near the close of the 16th cent- 
ury. At a later date they were also known as Congre- 
gationalists. They played an important part in English 
history in the time of Oliver Cromwell. In their strug- 
gle for congregational independence they even rejected 
presbyteries and synods and insisted that each congre- 



THE REFORMED CHURCH 269 

gation should be perfectly independent in the manage- 
ment of all church affairs. 

Upon Elizabeth's death the English throne passed to 
the Scottish Stuarts, who thus united all Great Britain 
under one scepter. Several princes of this family had a 
secret leaning toward the Catholic Church. One of 
them, James II, openly expoused Catholicism. This 
was one of the main causes of the second English revo- 
lution which placed William of Orange on the English 
throne in 1689. On this occasion the Episcopal Church 
was made, in a true sense, the Established Church of 
England, but by a toleration act freedom of worship 
was granted to all Protestant Dissenters. 

In Ireland too the Episcopal Church w T as established 
though most of the people adhered to the Catholic 
faith. 

In more recent times there has been a great deal of 
agitation in the English Church. Through the influence 
of the dissenters some of her members began to labor 
for a more vital religion, laying less stress upon pecu- 
liarities of doctrine, government, and cult. They were 
known as Low- Churchmen. Opposed to them were the 
High- Churchmen, who laid special stress upon the pe- 
culiarities of the Episcopal Church. Then, too, the so- 
called Ritualists have urged an almost complete return to 
the Catholic cult. A movement hostile to Christianity 
has also developed during the last century on English 
soil in Socialism. 

The originator of English socialism was the wealthy Scotch 
mill-owner Robert Owen. Moved with sympathy for the laboring 
classes in their poverty and distress, he sought to improve their 
condition. To secure this end he sought to substitute a system of 
co-operation for that of competition, which had reduced wages out 
of all proportion. He would accordingly make the laborers, in a 
sense, share-holders in the industry, each one receiving a share in 



270 THE MODERN ERA 

the profits corresponding to his labor. He attempted to carry out 
his ideas first in America and afterwards in England. For his warm 
interest in the welfare of the poor laborers he deserves full credit. 
But in his zeal to prepare for them earthly comforts he would rob 
them of their heavenly treasures. For his economic system he laid 
a purely materialistic basis. He rejected the belief in God and a 
future life. Religion was a myth and a harmful one, as it led men 
to seek the eternal treasures even at the expense of the temporal 
ones. Man's highest aim was to attain earthly happiness. This 
he could do only in an ideal socialistic state. In it there was to be 
no government in the usual sense, no private ownership of wealth, 
no family life. Instead there was to be a number of communities, 
some larger, some smaller, where labor was to be in common and 
the profits were to be divided according to need. The children 
were to be educated at public institutions, removed from all harm- 
ful civilization, where they could live into the socialistic idea 
of life. 

It is evident that such a community is an impossibility. It is 
based on man's struggle for earthly happiness, which it would 
secure only through material sources. But when all higher aspira- 
tions in man are suppressed, and only his lower, his earth-born 
desires are developed, his only aim will be a selfish struggle to 
secure as much enjoyment for himself as he can. The natural 
result will be that each one will try to work as little and enjoy as 
much as possible, and this will result in divisions and quarrels. 
Furthermore, man does not live by bread alone. Mutual love, 
which thrives best under the protection of family life, is at least 
as necessary for earthly happiness as material well-being. This 
love would soon evaporate in a social community founded on selfish- 
ness. And all the inspiration and enthusiasm called forth by a 
struggle for an ideal, all the comfort which lies in the hope of 
bliss beyond the grave will be no more when the conviction has 
gained ground that God and the spirit of man are empty words. 

The doctrines of socialism have found adherents also on the 
continent of Europe. In France they gave rise to Communism, 
which time and again has proved itself an enemy to a true social 
order. In Germany efforts have been made to unite all socialists 
into a great international confederation. In Russia Nihilism seeks 
to overthrow all established order. Only in an indirect way has 
socialism brought good results. It has led thinkers and statesmen 



THE REFORMED CHURCH 271 

to study social problems and to seek means for improving the condi- 
tion of the lower classes of society. The best means to this end is 
and ever will be that true Christian charity which seeks not its 
own good, but rather that of others. 

96. The Reformed Church in Scotland. The Reformation 
in Scotland was established through the efforts of the 
resolute and determined reformer John Knox, who was 
a pupil of John Calvin. After many struggles the Prot- 
estant Church finally won a complete victory. A con- 
fession of a purely Calvin istic type was adopted in 1560, 
and the church was established with a simple worship 
and a Presbyterian form of government. In 1689, this 
Church was recognized as the State Church of Scotland. 

There had been considerable dissatisfaction for a 
long time with the manner in which the state and cer- 
tain landed proprietors exercised the so-called right of 
patronage. When the government refused to make 
reasonable changes in these matters large numbers 
withdrew from the Established Church and under the 
lead of the celebrated Dr. Thomas Chalmers organized 
the Free Church of Scotland in 1843. This church has 
since enjoyed great prosperity and embraces at present 
about one third of the people of Scotland. 

By right of patronage is meant the privilege enjoyed by certain 
landed proprietors of appointing ministers in parishes within which 
their lands were located. 

It is from Scotland that the Evangelical Alliance traces its 
origin. It was organized in 1846 and aims at a closer union among 
all Evangelical Christians. It does not seek to remove confessional 
differences, but only to bring the Evangelical denominations into 
closer touch with one another and to know and recognize one an- 
other as brethren. Its aim is, therefore, the same as that of the 
Philippists and Syncretists in the early Lutheran Church, without, 
however, requiring the concessions and accommodations in doctrine 
that the earlier efforts did. The Alliance has met with much favor 
from the various Evangelical denominations in different lands. 



272 THE MODERN ERA 

Perhaps the most generally accepted part of its program is the 
observance of the week of prayer (the first week of the year), 
annually recommended by it. 

97. The Reformed Church in Germany. A most impor- 
tant event for the Church in Germany was the defection 
of the Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg to the 
Reformed Church in 1613. He realized, however, that 
he could not compel his Lutheran subjects to follow 
him in matters of faith. He, therefore, devoted his 
efforts toward effecting a union between the two Prot- 
estant Churches in his domains. His successors pursued 
the same policy. The movement was favored by the 
indifference for all definite confession fostered during 
the period of the illumination, and on the occasion of 
the celebration of the third centenary of the Reforma- 
tion, in 1817, the foundation was actually laid for such 
a union. Thus arose the Evangelical Church of Prussia 
in which the Lutherans and the Reformed were to be 
united under a common church government, using a 
similar service, while each party might retain its own 
confession of faith. The union, however, brought many 
disadvantages especially to the Lutherans who re- 
mained faithful to their confession. Hence, many of 
them withdrew from the Evangelical State Church and 
organized separate Lutheran congregations which were 
afterwards (1845) granted religious freedom. 



D. THE SECTS- 

98 The Anabaptists or Mennonites. Menno Simonis, a 
Catholic priest, who had resigned his priest's ofiice and 
had himself rebaptized, collected the scattered frag- 
ments of the Anabaptists and united them into an 



THE SECTS 273 

organization whose members were known after him as 
Mennonites. They abandoned the fanatical extremes of 
the early Anabaptists and approached in doctrine very 
closely to the Reformed Church. Their most prominent 
pecularities are the following: 1) They reject infant 
baptism. 2) They insist that the Church shall be com- 
posed of only pure members, and its purity they seek to 
maintain by a strict church discipline. 3) They abstain 
from all military and civil service and from the taking 
of oaths as well as from all closer relations with the 
world as opposed to their calling as children of God. 
Their chief resort was Holland where they secured free- 
dom of worship in 1626. 

99. The Socinians. In Italy and other places certain 
persons arose, during the period of the Reformation, 
against the doctrine of the Trinity as being opposed to 
reason. Driven from home they fled to Poland, where 
the city of Racau became their chief center. An Italian 
exile, Faustus Socinus, developed their doctrines, which, 
shortly after his death, were briefly set forth in theRaco- 
vian Catechism, published in 1605. The confessors 
of this faith were known from its founder as Socinians. 
Upon the instigation of the Jesuits they were expelled 
from Poland in 1658. Since that time only scattered 
Socinian congregations have existed, mostly in Sieben- 
biirgen. 

The Socinian doctrines are a mixture of Rationalism, 
Dynamism, and Pelagianism. 1) The Bible is the only 
source of knowledge of saving truth, but it cannot con- 
tain any thing that is contrary to reason, and must, 
therefore, be understood in the light of reason. 2) The 
doctrine of the Trinity is contrary to reason and does 
not rest on a scriptural basis. In the Godhead there is 
but one person, the Father. The Son is only a man, 

18 



274 THE MODERN ERA 

who was endowed with divine power for the purpose of 
preparing man's salvation, and for his obedience was 
raised to divine majesty. The Holy Ghost is only the 
power of God for sanctiScation. 3) There is no such 
thing as original sin, but only an inclination toward 
what is evil, derived from habit and imitation. By the 
exercise of his own will man attains to faith in the truth 
and is enabled to walk in the footsteps and after the 
commands of Christ. Through the intercession of Christ 
he then receives the forgiveness of sins and an inward 
power for continued sanctification. 

99%. The Arminians. See § 93. 

100. The Baptists. Near the beginning of the 17th 
century certain parties separated themselves from the 
English Independents and carried the doctrine of per- 
sonal independence to its extreme point, urging that 
each individual should have a right not only to decide 
what Church he would join but also whether he would 
belong to any church or not. Hence, baptism, which 
should be by immersion, should not be administered to 
children, but only to adults. The adherents of these 
doctrines were known as Baptists. At a later date the 
Baptists split up into two parties, the one accepting 
and the other rejecting the doctrine of unconditional 
predestination. The former were known as Particular 
and the latter as General, or Free Will, Baptists. With- 
in these divisions farther divisions have since occurred. 
Beyond England the Baptists have spread largely, 
especially in the United States. Lately they have spread 
also in various countries in Europe. They number a 
large following in Sweden, where, however, they have 
not availed themselves of the Dissenter Act and with- 
drawn from the Established Church. The Baptists have 



THE SECTS 275 

taken an active part in temperance work and in the 
missionary work among heathen nations. 

101. The Quakers. During the internal struggles that 
distracted England near the middle of the 17th century 
a certain unlettered youth, named George Fox, came 
forward and preached against the prevalent formalism 
in the Church and sought to arouse a more spiritual re- 
ligion. Many were carried away by his disconnected 
but fervent preaching, and soon a body of like-minded 
persons gathered around him. With these he effected 
an organization under the name of The Society of Friends, 
in 1G49. The name Quaker was given them by their op- 
ponents as a term of reproach. 

At first they were severely persecuted, and during 
their early fanaticism they often furnished the occasion 
for these persecutions by their absurd extravagances. 
Gradually they became more sober and moderate. Two 
prominent men exercised a wholesome influence upon 
the organization. One was the Scotchman Eobert 
Barclay, who wrote a summary of their doctrines, the 
other was the celebrated William Penn, who devoted 
his large estate to the founding of a home for his people 
in the new world in the state named for him Pennsyl- 
vania (1682). Since 1689 the Quakers like so many 
other sects have enjoyed freedom of worship in England. 

The following are the chief peculiarities of the 
Quakers: 1) They reject the means of grace and, after 
the manner of the mystics, they place the inner light of 
God's Spirit in the believer above the outer Word of 
God in Scripture. 2) Justification consists in the in- 
dwelling of Christ in the heart of man, taking form and 
shape there. 3) They disregard all outward church 
organization as mere show. They gather, however, on 
Sundays in some simple meeting place for common 



276 



THE MODERN ERA 



devotion. Any one, man or woman, moved by the 
Spirit may then rise and exhort. But should no one be 
thus moved they will separate after awhile as quietly as 
they met. 4) Like the Mennonites they refuse to take 
oaths and to render military and civil service. They 
even disregard common courtesies, such as bowing to 
persons or raising the hat or using titles in addressing 
any one. Their dress is of a peculiar type and is not 

subject to the changes 
of fashion. 

The Quakers have dis- 
tinguised themselves by 
their struggles for reli- 
gious liberty, the aboli- 
tion of slavery, prison 
reforms (Elizabeth Fry), 
and similar philan- 
thropic movements. 

102. The Herrnhuters. 
A certain Count Zinzen- 
dorf, who had received 
his training in the 
Franckean Establish- 
ment in Halle had of- 
fered a place of refuge to 
the Moravian Brethren 
and other Protestant refugees from Catholic persecu- 
tions on his estate of Bertelsdorf in Lusatia. Thus 
arose the Herrnhut Colony. Here he organized, in 1727, 
a new Brotherhood, which he would make into a "re- 
servoir in which he might collect every little brooklet of 
living water, from which he might again water the 
whole world." From the name of the colony the mem- 
bers are also known as Herrnhuters. Zinzendorf had 




ZlNZENDORF. 



THE SECTS 277 

himself consecrated as their bishop and labored with 
untiring zeal to the end of his life (1760) for the ad- 
ministration and development of the new Brotherhood. 
His successor Spangenberg developed their doctrinal 
views in a work known as "Idea Fidei Fratrum". 

In doctrine the Herrnhuters, or Moravian Brethren, 
approach the Lutheran Church very closely and have, 
indeed, adopted the Augsburg Confession. A certain 
one-sidedness, however, manifests itself in their doctrinal 
views. Thus they emphasize almost exclusively the 
work of the Son in man's salvation, ignoring that of the 
Father and the Holy Ghost. In the work of the Son, again, 
they present especially his atoning death, which they 
regard less as a substitutionary satisfaction for the sin 
of the world than as a divine love-sacrifice. Hence, they 
preach almost exclusively the Gospel of God's love and 
seek in this way to call forth an answering love and 
gratitute in men's hearts. 

Their worship is also adapted to arouse pious feeling. 
Their sweet music, their emotional hymns, their love 
feasts and the fraternal kiss, which they have adopted 
from the early Church, all tend in the same direction. 

Their highest authority is exercised by the Unity s 
Elders' Conference, which has its seat at Herrnhut. The 
administration of the sacraments belongs to bishops 
and presbyters. Deacons and deaconesses are to minis- 
ter to the sick and poor. The members of each local 
congregation are classified in groups according to age, 
rank, and sex, each under a leader, who exercises the 
spiritual care of the individual members. 

The chief importance of the Herrnhuters lies in the 
fact that during periods of skepticism and indifference 
they have maintained the faith in the Crucified. In the 
work of foreign missions they have manifested greater 



278 THE MODERN ERA 

interest and made greater sacrifices than any other 
Christian denomination. Their efforts in this line have 
also been blessed with remarkable success. The number 
of members in their mission congregations to-day 
exceed many-fold the number of Herrnhuters in Chris- 
tian lands. 

The Brotherhood now consists of three provinces, the American, 
the British, and the German. In 1749 the British parliament rec- 
ognized the Moravian Brethren as an episcopal church and en- 
couraged their settlement in the North American colonies. They 
devoted themselves to mission work among the Indians with great 
success. The American province is divided into two districts, the 
northern and the southern. The former has its seat of government 
at Bethlehem, Pa., the latter at Salem, N. C. In the British 
province the seat of government is at Ockbrook in Derbyshire. 
Herrnhut continues as the seat of the German province and is also, 
as has already been mentioned, the seat of the Elders' Conference 
for the government of the whole Brotherhood. The Herrnhuters 
are not proselyters, but they carry on the so-called work of the 
Diaspora ' 'which has for its object the evangelization of the state 
churches without proselyting their members. " This work is carried 
on in the various German States, Switzerland, France, the Scandi- 
navian countries, and in Russia. In Sweden there were, already dur- 
ing the 18th century men who labored in the spirit of the Herrn- 
huters. Among them the most celebrated is Rutstrom (died 1772), 
the author of "The New Zion's Songs." The Brethren never 
organized any separate congregations in Sweden, but have two 
small associations in Stockholm and Goteborg. 

103. Methodism. In England the movement known as 
Methodism formed a counterpart to the pietistic move- 
ment within the Lutheran Church. The originator of 
the movement was John Wesley, a young student of 
Oxford who together with a number of like-minded 
young men formed a society for the promotion of a 
more spiritual life (1729). The members of the society 
were scornfully called Methodists by their companions 
as they were regarded as practicing their religion 



THE SECTS 279 

according to certain methods. They were soon joined 
by a highly gifted young man, named George Whitefield, 
who shares with John Wesley the honor of founding the 
Methodist Church. 

The Methodists soon began a zealous work both in 
England and America. They devoted their efforts 
especially to the neglected lower classes and contributed 
in a high degree to their religious and moral elevation. 
In 1739 they organized congregations of their own 
which, however, did not fully separate from the Estab- 
lished Church before the beginning of the American Rev- 
olution in 1775. 

The Methodists hold to the confession of the Re- 
formed Church, but have a peculiar conception of the 
work of grace. They hold that only those are truly 
converted who having passed through a serious strug- 
gle under conviction of sin have suddenly come to the 
assurance of sins forgiven and sonship with God, and 
that a person thus converted can attain even in this life 
to a state of sinless perfection. By exciting and terri- 
fying sermons, supported by various outward means, 
they seek to arouse the sinner to a conviction of his 
sins, and by an earnest individual care they seek to pre- 
serve the new convert and lead him onward toward the 
attainment of perfect holiness. 

The business affairs of the Methodist Church are con- 
ducted at the annual conference. The means of grace 
are administered by itinerant ministers. The indi- 
vidual members of the congregations are arranged in 
classes corresponding to the groups of the Herrnhuters, 
and like the latter, they have each a leader who exercises 
the spiritual care of the members of his class. 

The Methodists were early divided into two divisions r 
the followers of Wesley, who rejected Calvin's doctrine 



280 THE MODERN ERA 

of election, and those of Whitefield, who retained it. The 
former are by far the more numerous. They have since 
formed other divisions. The most important branch is 
the Methodist Episcopal Church. 

The Methodists are found principally within the 
British Empire and in the United States. Among 
heathen nations they are carrying on an extensive mis- 
sion work. 

Out of Methodism has sprung a strange movement 
known as the Salvation Army, which has carried to the 
farthest extreme the method of using outward means 
for the conversion of men. 

John Wesley and George Whitefield, the two founders of Methodism, 
were born near the beginning of the 18th century — the former in 
1703 and the latter in 1714. John Wesley's father was a pious and 
most active clergyman in the Established Church. His mother, 
a woman of deep piety, high intellectual endowments, orderly 
habits, and faithful devotion to domestic duties, exercised a power- 
ful influence upon her sons, not only during early years, but also 
afterwards. John, who became the most prominent of the sons, 
inherited both the father's and the mother's best qualities. In his 
seventeenth year he began his studies at Oxford. Having secured 
a good classical education, he devoted himself to the study of 
theology, and at the same time read most diligently works of devo- 
tion, especially that of Thomas a Kempis, "The Imitation of 
Christ." He began to lead a pious life, withdrew from the associa- 
tion of worldly companions, communed often at the Lord's table, 
and exercised himself in watching and prayer. 

At the age of 22 he was ordained deacon, and after spending a 
few years at home as his father's assistant, during which time he 
received ordination as priest, he again returned to Oxford in 1729. 
Here he at once assumed the leadership of a small society organized 
by his younger brother Charles. The society at first numbered only 
four members. They met several evenings each week for de- 
votional exercises, especially the reading of the New Testament. 
They soon extended their activities to visiting prisoners, adminis- 
tering relief to the suffering and poor, and instructing* neglected 
children. They were called Methodists by way of reproach by their 



THE SECTS 



281 



enemies. They, however, afterwards accepted the name, which at 
the time was about synonymous with that of pietists. Their mode 
of life was severely ascetic. Their numbers gradually increased, 
and in 1733 George Whitefield, then 19 years of age, joined them. 

The latter was the son of an innkeeper and had received a 
rather indifferent bringing up, and, in his early youth, sustained a 
less enviable reputation. But at the age of seventeen a thorough 
conversion took place within him, and a year after his arrival at 
Oxford he joined the Methodists, as has been mentioned. 

Two years later Wesley sailed for Georgia for the purpose of 
converting the Indians. 
On the voyage he met 
a company of Herrn- 
huters. The calm hu- 
mility with which they 
bore all abuse and in- 
jury heaped upon them 
and the fortitude with 
which they sang their 
songs in the midst of 
a raging storm awak- 
ened his surprise and 
admiration. On his 
arrival in Savannah he 
met Spangenberg- (§ 
102). When the latter 
asked him, ' 'my broth- 
er, have you the wit- 
ness of the Spirit that 
you are a child of 
God?" he was terrified 

and knew not what to answer. After laboring a few years as a 
preacher in Savannah — to the Indians he never went — he returned 
to England. Though his work in Georgia was not without good 
results still he says of it later, "I went to America to convert 
others and was not myself converted." Hitherto he had sought 
salvation through work and not by faith. 

He now spent some time in London and again met the Herrn- 
huters through whom he was brought to a still clearer light. Of 
his conversion he writes as follows: "In the evening (May 24, 1738) 
I went with a certain reluctance to a religious meeting, where was 




John Wesley. 



282 THE MODERN ERA 

read Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a 
quarter before nine, at the description of the change wrought by- 
God in the soul through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely 
warmed. I felt I did trust Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and 
an assurance was given me that he had taken away my sins, even 
mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death. I at once be. 
gan to pray for those who had persecuted me and despitef ully used 
me. I then testified publicly before them all of what I now for the 
first time felt in my heart." 

Ever since his first acquaintance with the Herrnhuters he de- 
sired to visit their headquarters. In the summer of 1738, he 
crossed over to Germany, met Count Zinzendorf, and spent several 
weeks at Herrnhut. He was deeply impressed by the Herrnhuters 
on account of their strong faith, their warm love of Christ and the 
brethren, their renunciation of the world, their simple habits, etc. 
But there were some things which he did not like, especially their 
neglect of fasts and other pious practices. 

After his return to London he preached to large audiences but 
without any definite plan for his work. In the meantime, near the 
end of the year, Whitefield arrived in the city. He was now or- 
dained deacon. He had spent some time in Georgia, but had 
returned to England to collect funds for an orphan home in 
Savannah. 

The two men with others of like mind now entered upon a most 
comprehensive mission. Like a mighty stream Methodism spread 
over the land, arousing mind and heart and causing a powerful 
awakening. But opponents were not wanting. Hate and persecu- 
tion followed. Wesley had no intention whatever of founding a 
new church or sect, but when the Established Church, long since 
paralyzed by formalism, opposed the new movement and shut its 
places of worship against its preachers, the latter were compelled 
to extend their work beyond the narrow limits of the Church. In 
this matter Whitefield took the lead. In February 1739, he held 
his first open-air meeting. The impression was overpowering. 
Many a hardened mind was softened and loud cries and sobs were 
heard on every hand. "God be praised", said Whitefield, "I have 
broken the ice. Men may revile me, but if I sought to please men, 
I would not be the servant of Christ." 

Wesley soon followed his example. Immense multitudes 
gathered to hear him. The sermons were often interrupted by 
loud cries and throwing of stones and other missiles, but the fear- 



THE SECTS 283 

less preachers continued their work. Many came out of curiosity, 
but large numbers were touched by the Word of God and and joined 
the movement in real earnest. 

After having collected 2,530 pounds for his orphan home, White- 
field returned to Georgia. Wesley, however, continued his open-air 
preaching both in London and in the country districts. Even when 
at a later day chapels and churches had been built this field preach- 
ing was continued. In the opposition he met he only saw evidences 
that he was doing the Lord's work. "To save souls is my calling", 
he said, "and my parish is the world." 

In 1741, when Whitefield returned from America, a division 
arose between him and Wesley, caused by their different views re- 
garding the doctrine of predestination. From early years Wesley's 
mind and heart had rebelled against the doctrine of unconditional 
election. He now openly expressed his views. Whitefield on the 
other hand held tenaciously to Calvin's doctrine. In it alone he 
could find the key to the enigmas of life, and the seal of his own 
salvation. He regarded himself as a brand plucked out of the fire, 
and he felt fully convinced that only God's inscrutable and absolute 
will had done this. Thus the two leaders of Methodism separated. 
They were, however, reconciled to each other after a few years, 
but each one held to his own course. To-day there are but few 
Methodists who hold to the doctrine of predestination. 

Whitefield afterwards divided his attention between England 
and America. Wherever he went he aroused the greatest enthusi- 
asm. He is said to have preached in all 18,000 sermons. As a 
preacher he was unusually gifted. He had an unbounded power of 
invention, a glowing imagination, a powerful and melodious voice, 
and an inimitable play of features. These natural gifts he dedi- 
cated to the service of the Lord, and hardly seemed conscious of 
his own pre-eminence. He spoke from the fullness of his heart, 
and when in an almost tangible manner he pictured to his breathless 
listeners the glory of the upper kingdom he seemed to be lifted into 
a state of ecstasy, and the present material world seemed to dis- 
appear in the presence of the eternal. The learned and the un- 
learned, the believers and the unbelievers, were alike enchained by 
his oratory. He closed his richly blessed and useful life in America 
in 1770. His work contributed powerfully towards calling forth 
the so-called Low Church Party, which during the century just 
closed has played such an important part and aroused such life and 
activity within the Established Church. 



284 THE MODERN ERA 

Whitefield had no practical ability as a leader and organizer. 
Such matters he left to his friends. Wesley on the other hand pos- 
sessed this ability in a high degree, and gave to the Methodist 
Church a remarkably strong organization. As has been remarked 
he was loth to separate from the Episcopal Church within which he 
had been born and brought up and ordained a priest. Step by step, 
however, he was driven to this separation by the hostile attitude of 
that Church. 

As he did not have a sufficient number of ordained ministers he 
"was obliged to make use of lay preachers. Toward the close of his 
life he ordained several persons to the ministry. The ministers 
and preachers were almost continually traveling as they could stay 
but a short time at each place, a circumstance which carried with 
it various advantages, but which perhaps entailed still greater dis- 
advantages. The chief direction of the Church he exercised him- 
self with great authority as long as he lived. He gathered about 
himself a number of intimate friends as an advisory body. Before 
his death he directed that the highest authority in the Church 
should be exercised by an annual conference of a hundred ministers, 
with self -perpetuating powers. Various changes in the government 
have since been made. 

The congregations are divided into classes of a smaller number 
of persons, who were to meet once a week to pay their dues and 
report their spiritual condition to the class-leader. All members 
were subjected to severe discipline. This discipline was made more 
severe in the case of such members as had advanced further in the 
way of sanctification. They formed small societies within the con- 
gregation. An especially exemplary conduct was required of them; 
they were to abstain from the wearing of ornaments, the use of 
tobacco, and the like, and enjoined to keep every Friday as a 
fast-day. 

Four times each year the members were all to meet for a love- 
feast at which only bread and water were to be served. The exer- 
cises consisted principally of prayer, song, and exhortation. Charles 
Wesley wrote many excellent hymns which made the Methodists like 
the Herrnhuters a singing people. Monthly watchnights were also 
held when half of the night was spent in prayer, praise, and thanks- 
giving. The novelty of the thing and the sacred stillness of the 
night seldom failed to make a powerful impression upon all minds. 

The doctrine of sudden conversion, on which Wesley laid so 
much stress was substantiated by his own conversion and the 



THE SECTS 285 

experience of many others, but it was a one-sided and even dangerous 
practice to make it a uniform rule for all and to try to force a con- 
version where there was no real contrition of heart. In such cases 
it became only a matter of momentary excitement. The Christian 
perfection to which each convert should advance by a constant 
progress in sanctification was according to Wesley not an absolute 
perfection. There was much weakness pertaining to even the per- 
fect and many errors and mistakes could be done by him in matters 
not pertaining to his salvation. Furthermore Wesley taught that 
no one could be absolutely safe in this life from a relapse from 
grace and a state of perfection, and, hence, no one should feel 
secure or depend upon his own good works, but continually watch 
and pray and through the grace of Christ go forward in sancti- 
fication. 

Wesley reached a high age and was always unceasingly active. 
Even in his 87th year he could preach twice a day. He is said to 
have preached more than twice as many sermons as Whitefield. 
The Church he founded numbered at his death, in 1791, about 
120,000 members and about 500 preachers. A still more remarkable 
growth has since attended the Church, especially in America. 

As a preacher Wesley differed much from Whitefield. His dis- 
course was calm and direct; his voice was not strong, but remark- 
ably clear; his sermons were short and simple; his presentation 
was logical and impressive through its very simplicity. In character 
he was thoroughly honest and straightforward, free from suspicion, 
and ingenuous as a child; hence, he was often imposed upon. 

His great service was to arouse to life and activity many 
slumbering forces in the Evangelical Church, and to lead the way 
in the employment of laymen in the service of Christian charity. 
He may be regarded as the father of the so-called inner mission, 
the great humanitarian movement of the last century. In him we 
find the first thought of nearly all the philanthropic work which 
has since been carried out in England. He was also the first one 
to raise his voice against the evils of slavery. 

104. The Swedenborgians. Emanuel Swedenborg 
(died 1772), son of bishop Jesper Svedberg, was already 
a distinguished scientist when he, in 1745, began to de- 
vote himself exclusively to theosophical speculations. 
He believed himself to be in communication with spirits, 



286 THE MODERN ERA 

who reA'ealed to him the true relation between the ma- 
terial and the spiritual world ; and the higher wisdom 
ne thus obtained he presented in various works, the 
most important of which is his "True Christian Reli- 
gion" (Vera Christiana Religio). 

The fundamental principle in Sw T edenborg's system 
is the doctrine that there is a universal correspondence 
between the spiritual and the material world. To this 
fundamental doctrine he gives a thorough exposition, 
which may be summarized in the following points : 1) 
The Bible has a literal and a spiritual sense. The spir- 
itual sense had in the course of time been lost and for- 
gotten, but was now to be brought into full light by 
Swedenborg. 2) In the Godhead there is but one Per- 
son w r ho has been revealed in Jesus of Nazareth. He is 
known as the Father with regard to his spiritual essence, 
as the Son with regard to his manifestation in the 
natural world, and as the Holy Ghost with regard to his 
work in man's sanctification. 3) Redemption consists 
In this that Christ through his triumph over the evil 
spirits and in the example of his holy life has given to 
men a powerful incentive to an earnest struggle against 
all evil. 4) There is no resurrection of the body, but 
the souls of men are immediately after death given 
spiritual bodies and become angels or evil spirits ac- 
cording as they have in life developed the good or the 
evil. There is no other w r orld of angels. 5) In the future 
life there is a complete correspondence w T ith the present 
life. What man desires and practices in this world he 
will desire and practice in the life to come. In heaven 
all earthly conditions will appear in a glorified form, 
while in hell all will be abhorrent and terrible as a sym- 
bol of the evil nature of the lost. 

In England, where he spent much of his time in later 



THE SECTS 287 

years, in Sweden and other lands he secured a number 
of adherents even during his life-time. It was not till 
after his death that a Swedenborgian congregation was 
organized in London (1787), which called itself the 
"New Jerusalem" or the "New Church". There are but 
few Swedenborgians in Sweden. They are more numer- 
ous in England and the United States. 

105. The Irvingites and Darbyites. The Irvingites were 
named for Edward Irving, a Scotch-Presbyterian 
preacher in London (died 1834), who was deposed for 
heresy in 1832, after which he laid the foundation for a 
new religious organization. They claim to have received 
again the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit. For 
the propagation of these gifts they have re-established 
the offices of Apostles and Prophets of the early Church. 
They lay special stress upon the study and interpreta- 
tion of the apocalyptic prophecies of the second advent 
of Christ. 

The Irvingites call their organization the Catholic 
Apostolic Church. They are now found in the British 
Isles, the United States, Canada Germany, Switzerland, 
Sweden, and other countries in Europe. 

While the Irvingites lay great stress upon the out 
ward organization of the Church and ecclesiastical of- 
fices, the Darbyites — named after their founder, John 
Darby, an Episcopal clergyman in Ireland — reject all 
outward organization. In their services they resemble 
the Quakers. From present conditions, which they re- 
gard as absolutely evil, they direct their hopes to the 
second coming of Christ, which they regard as near at 
hand. They have adherents in various countries of 
Europe and in the United States and Canada. They are 
also known as "Plymouth Brethren". 



208 THE MODERN ERA 

106. The Mormons. In the United States, where since 
the Declaration of Independence, in 1776, Church and 
State have been completely separated, the fullest pos- 
sible religious freedom exists. Here are found nearly all 
the religious denominations of the world, and here too 
some new ones have originated. Among these the best 
known is the Mormon Church. It was founded by Jo- 
seph Smith, who in 1830 published an alleged ancient 
revelation, the "Book of Mormon", and began to gather 
adherents. They were persecuted and compelled to flee 
from place to place until after Smith's death they finally 
found a permanent home in Utah. 

To the Bible and the Book of Mormon they attribute 
the same authority. By the side of these ancient docu- 
ment they place the new revelations proclaimed from 
time to time by their prophets. These proclamations 
are often inconsistent not only one with another, but 
also with the Bible and the Book of Mormon. Hence, it 
follows that the Mormon Church is in a state of con- 
stant change, and at present has little in common with 
Christianity. Admission to the Church is by baptism 
which is performed by immersion. Only persons who 
have attained to the age of understanding are baptized. 
Polygamy is a religious duty. The Mormons call them- 
selves the Latter Day Saints and regard their Church as 
the beginning of the Millennium in which Christ, in 
bodily presence, will reign together with them over all 
the Earth. 

The Mormons are zealously working through their 
missionaries to secure proselytes in the various countries 
in Europe and especially in Great Britain and the Scan- 
dinavian lands. 



THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 289 

E. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 

107. Jansenism and the Jesuits. Though the Roman 
Church, in the doctrine of sin and grace, had embraced 
Semi-Pelagianism she had never expressly renounced 
the views of St. Augustine. Even the Council of Trent 
had on this point employed such indefinite language as 
to include the views both of Thomists and Scotists 
(§ 55). The Dominicans still followed their great light, 
Thomas Aquinas, and defended St. Augustine, while the 
Franciscans with the Jesuits as zealous allies defended 
the opposite view. 

The Dominicans were reinforced by the celebrated 
bishop of Ypres, Cornelius Jansenius, who had given a 
careful study to St. Augustine, and who left at the time 
of his death, in 1638, a learned presentation of his doc- 
trine. This work opened the eyes of many to the falsity 
of the prevalent opinion regarding the meritorious 
nature of good works and gave rise to a movement for 
a moral and religious reform of the Roman Church. The 
adherents of this movement were known as Jansenists. 
The most distinguished among them were the great 
mathematician Pascal and Antoine Arnauld and his 
sister Angelica, abbess of the Cistercian cloister of Port 
Royal, near Paris, which through her became the center 
of this movement in France. 

The Jesuits made a violent attack upon the Jan- 
senists and succeeded in securing a papal bull condemn- 
ing them in 1653. It was then that Blaise Pascal arose 
and in his "Provincial Letters" exposed the base moral 
principles of the Jesuits. With still greater vehemence 
the Jesuits now turned against him and his friends and 
finally succeeded in inducing the Pope and the French 

19 



290 THE MODERN ERA 

king to suppress and destroy the cloister of Port Royal 
in 1709. 

The controversy soon entered a new phase. A pious 
and learned priest in Paris, Paschasius Quesnel, pub- 
lished a French translation of the New Testament, pro- 
vided with notes in St. Augustine's spirit. It met with a 
wide circulation and was recommended by several prom- 
inent bishops. The Jesuits, however, feigned to have 
discovered various errors in it and succeeded in inducing 
the Pope to condemn several of its statements as heret- 
ical. Some of these statements were taken directly 
from St. Augustine. A large number of the French 
clergy opposed the Pope's decision and appealed to a 
general Church Council. They were known as appellants 
and were for a time sternly oppressed, but were after- 
wards granted greater liberties. 

The real Jansenists were compelled to leave France. 
They withdrew to Holland, where they founded a Church 
which still exists. 

Apparently the Jesuits had triumphed in this contest 
and deprived the Catholic Church of the opportunity for 
an inner regeneration, which had appeared in Jansen- 
ism; but they were soon to reap the reward of their 
labors. They lost the confidence of the better part of 
the people by their base morals; princes and statesmen 
they offended by their political intrigues; and soon the 
champions of the "illumination" appeared in arms 
against them. In consequence they were expelled from 
Portugal, in 1759, and afterwards from France and 
Spain. Finally the Pope was obliged to yield to the 
spirit of the times and the pressure of the governments 
and dissolve the order in 1773. 

A prominent French divine during this period was 



THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



291 



the mystical archbishop of Cambray, Fenelon (died 
1715), whose writings are known and read even to-day. 

Blaise Pascal, one of the greatest thinkers of the 17th century 
and one of the noblest sons of the Catholic Church in modern 
times, was descended from an eminent family in Auvergne, and was 
born in Clermont in 1623. At the age of eight he accompanied 
his father to Paris, 
whither the latter 
went for the special 
purpose of devoting 
himself wholly to 
the education of his 
gifted son. The 
father himself im- 
parted instruction 
and used his own 
methods, The boy 
was first to acquire 
a thorough knowl- 
edge of the classical 
languages and then 
of mathematics. 
But it was just to 
mathematics that the 
boy's mind was bent, 
and the father was 
struck with amaze- 
ment one day when 
the boy was in his 
twelfth year to find 
that he had secretly 
and unaided thought 

out and demonstrated the propositions 1—32 in Euclid's first book. 
He was now permitted to follow his inclinations freely. At the age 
of seventeen he published his first mathematical treatise, which at- 
tracted great attention. He also made various physical experi- 
ments and discoveries especially in the line of barometric pressure 
and the equilibrium of the pressure of liquids. He also invented a 
calculating machine, which, however, never came into practical use. 




Blaise Pascal. 



292 THE MODERN ERA 

During the '40 's the Pascal family entered into intimate rela- 
tions with some Jansenist noblemen which had important results 
for the religious development of the young mathematician. At 
first, it is true, he seemed but little affected by it. His health, 
which had never been robust, had been undermined by the severe 
mental strain of his early life, and his physician advised him to 
seek diversion in the enjoyments of social life. He did so and for 
five years he led a superficial life in gay society. The serious im- 
pressions of his earlier years seemed gone, the sense of being a 
leader in the world of science filled his soul with pride — as is seen 
from the letter in which he offered Queen Christina of Sweden his 
calculating machine — and yet he could not refrain from feeling at 
times a great void and unrest in his soul. 

In the meantime his father had died, and his younger sister, 
Jacqueline, who was like himself highly gifted, had entered the 
Cistercian cloister of Port Royal. She had long prayed for her 
brothor's conversion and her prayer was finally answered. The 
brother, who was still young, withdrew from the influence of the 
gay life in Paris and for a time took up his abode in a house be- 
longing to the cloister (1654). 

Here there was gradually formed a sort of free-monk associa- 
tion, composed of a number of pious and learned men. They de- 
voted themselves especially to works of penance and devotional 
exercises, but engaged also in reading classical authors, translating 
the Bible and the writings of the church fathers, and the instruc- 
tion of the young. Among them was the prominent Jansenist, 
Antoine Arnauld, whose pious and resolute sister Angelica was the 
abbess in the neighboring convent. Zealously devoted to St. 
Augustine's doctrine of sin and grace and fully determined to en- 
force in all their severity the ancient rules of the order, she had 
completely transformed conditions at the convent and effected a 
thorough reformation. In the excellent schools which arose at this 
time in connection with this convent, many of the most celebrated 
men of France received their training, among them the poet Racine. 

Without assuming any monastic vows, Pascal subjected himself 
to the severest asceticism. With mathematical precision he cal- 
culated just how much food would be necessary for him to sustain 
life. He often fasted and wore next to his body a barbed chain. 
Whenever he had yielded to any emotion which he thought was sin- 
ful he would press the chain with his elbows that the increased pain 
might remind him more forcibly of his duty as a Christian. 



THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 293 

About a year after his conversion, he began to take an active 
part in the controversy between the Jansenists and the Jesuits. In 
defence of Antoine Arnauld, who had been condemned by the Sor- 
bonne, the celebrated theological school in Paris, he wrote his 
famous "Provincial Letters". He is not content, however, with 
merely defending the Jansenist view; he fearlessly attacks the 
whole Jesuitical system, especially the moral code. The principles 
which he attacks and which the Jesuits as confessors enforced were 
chiefly the following: 

1) An act could be declared permissible even though the Word 
of God condemned it as sinful if a single church authority could be 
quoted in its defence (Probabilism) . 2) Sinful deeds might be per- 
mitted if one only had a good purpose in view and used them as a 
means to a good end. 3) Falsehoods might be allowed if one only 
made a silent or mental reservation. Thus for instance a man 
could testify under oath that he had not done a certain thing which, 
however, he had done, if he would only make the silent reservation 
to himself that he had not done it on a certain day, or before he ivas 
born, or something of that kind. 

What made Pascal's letter all the more striking was the fact 
that in many instances he represents a Jesuit conversing with a 
disciple and in his unguarded utterances pronounces the judgment 
himself upon the shameless system. The style is at first witty and 
sarcastic, the tone sprightly and playful, then the author proceeds 
in a calm and clear way to prove his statements. As a whole these 
letters constitute a powerful protest against the spiritual tyranny 
of the Jesuits, and an eloquent expression of the deep resentment 
of the Jesuits' code felt by many an earnest Catholic. From a 
literary point of view they are real masterpieces. 

The Provincial Letters attracted unheard of attention. They 
were circulated by thousands and thousands, and were read by high 
and low, although they were at once prohibited and afterwards 
condemned by the Pope. The writer could not be reached, for no 
one knew who he was. They were written over an assumed name. 
Though the Jesuits gained an apparent victory over the talented 
defender of Jansenism, yet in the public esteem they suffered a 
defeat from which they have never recovered. Even in Catholic 
lands the term Jesuit has since then had an unpleasant ring. 

From the time of his conversion Pascal had planned to write an 
apologetical work in order to win souls for Christianity. It resulted, 



294 THE MODERN ERA 

however, only in detached thoughts and outlines on the essence of 
Christianity. A selection of these fragments was published after 
his death under the title of Pensees sur la religion. In these 
thoughts, so rich in flashes of genius, he manifests a deep religious 
feeling, a sincere faith, and a remarkable knowledge of the human 
heart. 

He points out among other things that man's true greatness 
consists in his acknowledgement of his misery. This misery is an 
indication of the greatness of man's nature. It is the misery of a 
deposed monarch. 

The Thoughts of Pascal have served as comfort, strength, and 
consolation to unnumbered multitudes of men. 

From the year 1656 Pascal spent most of his time in Paris, 
always practicing the severest asceticism. His latter years were 
embittered by intense bodily sufferings and by the hard blows dealt 
the convent of Port Royal and its adherents by the Pope and the 
French King at the instigation of the Jesuits. Deeply affected by 
the death of his sister, Jacqueline, known for her devotion and 
Christian fortitude, he survived her less than a year, and died 
August 19, 1662. 

Notwithstanding the many truly evangelical thoughts in his 
writings, and though his "letters" were condemned by the Church 
authorities, nevertheless Pascal remained loyal to the Catholic 
Church. He rises far above that Church, however, in his advocacy 
of religious freedom, his holding the Bible as the only rule in mat- • 
ters of faith, and his glorification of divine grace. 

108. The Church and State. Ever since the latter part 
of the Middle Ages the civil powers had sought to throw 
off the guardianship of the Church and afterwards to 
secure control over her. Tnese efforts reached their 
climax in the 18th century when attempts were made to 
make the churches in the various lands independent of 
the Pope. In Germany the Emperor Joseph II. (1780— 
1790) took the lead in these efforts. He severed the 
church connection with Rome in all his hereditary lands, 
and then in the spirit of the "illumination" he sought to 
transform the monasteries and the churches and make 



THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 295 

them more fruithful for temporal good. He was, how- 
ever, too radical in his efforts and did not consult the 
religious scruples of his subjects. The result was a 
sudden reaction after his death, and Austria fell back 
under the authority of the Pope. A few ecclesiastical 
electors attempted to follow the example of the Emperor 
and establish a Catholic National Church of Germany, 
but their efforts led to no practical results. The Catholic 
Church was, however, greatly weakened when, during 
the Napoleonic Wars, nearly ah the ecclesiastical states 
in Germany were secularized and divided among the 
temporal princes by way of indemnity for losses. 

Most radical of all were the changes wrought in 
France. The Revolution overthrew the existing order in 
both Church and State at the same time. The National 
Assembly confiscated all the church property to the 
state (1789), and the National Convention abolished 
Christianity and inaugurated the Worship of Reason 
(1793). But there was soon a return to more rational 
conditions. By a Concordat with the Pope in 1801, the 
French Church was assured of protection and support 
from the State. But by this measure the Church became 
dependent upon the civil power in a manner which 
greatly reduced the authority of the Pope. 

109. The Catholic Church during the Nineteenth Century. 
After the fall of Napoleon, the Pope began to work 
earnestly for the restoration of the Catholic Church and 
the extension of his own power. The Congress of Vienna 
(1811—1815) had besides other duties also that of 
regulating the affairs of the Church, but in this partic- 
ular they did not by any means satisfy the demands of 
the Pope. The latter then sought by other means to 
gain the desired end. The order of Jesuits, restored in 
1814, began to work in its old spirit but with more 



296 THE MODERN ERA 

caution. The Pope was also supported by a reactionary 
party (Ultramontanists), who saw in the restoration of 
Mediaeval conditions the surest remedy lor the evils with 
which the revolutionists threatened both Church and 
State. In this way he has succeeded in materially in- 
creasing his ecclesiastical authority, and at the Vatican 
Council in 1870, Pius IX. was even able to force through 
the decree that the Pope is infallible when speaking ex 
cathedra on questions of faith and morals. Nearly the 
entire Catholic Church accepted the decree. Only a small 
number protested against it and urged that the Church 
Councils should retain their ancient significance and 
that greater independence should be accorded the bish- 
ops. They called themselves "Old Catholics", sepa- 
rated from the Papal Church, and formed an organiza- 
tion of their own. They seem to be open to evangelical 
influences. 

But the Pope who had pushed his official authority 
to a point which his predecessors had sought in vain to 
reach had the humiliation of seeing himself deprived of 
nearly all temporal power. The last remnant of the 
Papal States was incorporated with the kingdom of' 
Italy in 1870. Since that time the Pope, in spite of all 
his protests, is sovereign ruler only in the Palace of the 
Vatican and an adjacent, insignificant part of the city 
of Rome. 



F. THE GREEK CHURCH. 

110. The Conditions of the Greek Church in general. 

From the time of its separation from the Roman Church 
to the present day the Greek Church has remained in 
a stagnant or retrogressive state. Only rarely have 



THE GREEK CHURCH 297 

efforts been made to infuse new life into her deadened 
forms. The most important of these efforts were made 
by Cyril Lucar, Patriarch of Constantinople. During 
his travels and residence in the West he had acquired a 
higher theological culture and formed a strong liking 
for the Reformed Church. Having attained the highest 
position in the Church, he made efforts to effect a union 
between his own and the Reformed Church. But he met 
with opposition from the Greek clergy, and the Jesuits, 
ever on the alert, aroused against him the suspicion of 
the Sultan, w T ho finally caused him to be put to death 
in 1638. 

On the part of Rome successful encroachments were 
made upon the territory of the Greek Church. Many 
Greek Catholics were induced to accept the Roman 
doctrines and government, but retained their Greek 
ritual. They were known as United Greeks. 

Tc defend their Church against such influences and 
tc preserve her peculiar position, many Greek theologi- 
ans now began to urge the necessity of a special con- 
fession. Such a confession, written by the metropolitan 
Mogila of Kiev, was also adopted at a synod of Con- 
stantinople in 1643. 

In doctrine the Greek Church closely approaches the 
Roman. They both embrace semi-Pelagianism and 
hold to the doctrine of transubstantiation. It differs 
from the Roman Church principally in rejecting the doc- 
trine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son 
as well as that of indulgences and it administers the 
communion in both kinds. It has a rich ceremonial 
liturgy which, toward the close of the Middle Ages, sup- 
planted the sermon. This liturgy, however, differs 
widely from that developed in the Western Church. 
Celibacy is enjoined upon monks and the higher clergy, 



298 THE MODERN ERA 

while the lower clergy are required to marry. But re- 
marriage is forbidden. When a clergyman becomes a 
widower he must lay down his office and enter a 
monastery. 

Cyril Lucar, one of the few great men in the Greek Church in 
Modern times, was born in Crete (then belonging to Venice) about 
the year 1572. During his early years he spent much of his time 
in Italy, in Venice and Padua, and there acquired a thorough knowl- 
edge of both classical and modern languages. Led by a love of 
learning and a desire to know something about the condition in the 
various churches he made a tour through a number of the European 
countries. He spent some time in Geneva and finally arrived in 
Lithuania, where he participated in the negotiations going on be- 
tween the Protestants and Greek and Roman Catholics. During 
these travels he formed a stronger and stronger liking for Protest- 
antism, especially its Calvinistic form, while at the same time his 
hostility to the Papacy increased more and more. 

After his return home he was ordained a priest and raised to 
the dignity of superior abbot (archimandrite). In 1602 he was 
made Patriarch of Alexandria. During the following years he 
maintained a close literary relation with the West. He saw very 
well that the Eastern Church needed a regeneration and this he 
hoped could be brought about through Protestant learning and 
theology. He, accordingly, secured a large number of theological 
works of Protestant authors, and sent out gifted Greek youths to 
be educated in Protestant schools. He kept up a correspondence 
with prominent men in Switzerland, Holland, and England and even 
with Gustavus Adolphus and Axel Oxenstjerna. In this connection 
it may be mentioned that he presented Charles I. of England, in 
1628, with the Codex Alexandrinus, the celebrated manuscript of 
the Bible now preserved in the British Museum. 

In 1621 he was raised to the highest dignity in the Greek Church 
as Patriarch of Constantinople. In this capacity he had, however, 
the greatest difficulties to contend with. His own people were dis- 
united and wavering. The Turkish government, despotic and in- 
different regarding the interests of the Christian Church, only 
sought by the most shameless Simony to secure as much money as 
possible in the appointments to high ecclesiastical offices. The ever 
watchful Jesuits had even in Alexandria caused him much trouble. 



THE GREEK CHURCH 299 

Supported by the French ambassador in Constantinople they now 
labored incessantly for his destruction. They saw in him a danger- 
ous enemy to their Church. His only real friends were the English 
and Dutch ambassadors at the Turkish Court. 

Through the instigation of the Jesuits he was deposed by the 
grand vizier time and again and as often restored to his office 
through the influence of the ambassadors mentioned. The Greeks 
in Constantinople had as yet no printing-press of their own. Now, 
however, one was secured, but was almost immediately destroyed 
by Turkish soldiers. The Jesuits had persuaded the grand vizier 
that the object of the press was to spread insurrectionary literature 
among the subjugated Cossacks. 

But Lucar was not to be deterred. He published in Geneva a 
work in which he sets forth his confession, based upon the faith of 
the Ancient Church and in all essentials agreeing with Calvinism. 
In matters of government and worship he also desired a union with 
the Reformed on the basis of a return to the institutions of the 
Early Church. 

This confession called forth the admiration of some and the 
bitterest hatred of others. And now the Jesuits finally succeeded 
in crushing him. When, in 1638, the Persian War broke out they 
persuaded the Sultan that Lucar was a dangerous man, who, when 
the soldiers were withdrawn, intended to stir up the Cossacks. The 
aged Patriarch was seized by the janizaries, was rowed out in a 
boat and strangled, and his body cast into the sea. Some friends 
afterwards found the body and buried it on an island. Ten years 
later it was removed to Constantinople and buried with great 
solemnity. 

The radical method by which Lucar had sought to reform the 
Greek Church called forth after his death a violent reaction, which 
showed how little this Church was prepared for a spiritual- 
regeneration. 

111. The Greek Church in various Lands. The separa- 
tion of the Russian Church from the Patriarchal see of 
Constantinople began in 1589, when she received her 
own patriarchate at Moscow. Complete independence 
was not secured, however, before Peter the Great de- 
clared himself the supreme head of the Russian Church 
in 1702. A few years later (1721) a new office, the 



300 THE MODERN ERA 

so-called Holy Synod, was established through which the 
Czar directs the affairs of the Church. 

A number of sects have arisen in Russia, differing 
from the Established Church principally in liturgical 
matters. 

After the liberation of Greece a church constitution 
was established there closely resembling the Russian. 

The Greek Church in the Turkish lands is governed 
by the Patriarch of Constantinople who is assisted by a 
Holy Synod of eight metropolitans. 

Among those who have separated from the Russian Church the 
Baskolniki (apostates) are the most numerous. They call them- 
selves Starowerzi or Old Believers. The occasion for the separation 
was a certain revision of the liturgy made by the Patriarch Nikon 
of Moscow about the middle of th 17th century. The most im- 
portant points in which they differ from the State Church are the 
following: 1) In the celebration of the Eucharist they consecrate 
seven instead of five loaves. 2) At funerals they carry the incense 
after and not before the corpse. 3) At baptisms they perform the 
procession from south to north, from left to right and not in the 
opposite directions. 4) At the close of the three hallelujahs they add 
Praised be the Lord. 5) They pronounce the name Jesus Isus. They 
also abstain from the use of tobacco and all intoxicants and still 
retain their ancient costumes. They now enjoy freedom of wor- 
ship. They are divided into two divisions: the Popovtsi who retain 
the priesthood and the Bezpopovtsi who entrust the administering 
of the sacraments to laymen. 



G. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS IN 
AMERICA. 

112. Conditions during Colonial Times. America is es- 
sentially the child of the Reformation. On the very 
threshold of that great event the Western Continent 
was discovered. The first churches established in the 



RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS IN AMERICA 301 

New World were, however, not of the Protestant faith. 
As Spain took possession of the southern part of North 
America and nearly all of South America the Catholic 
Church was established throughout all these regions, 
and remains to this day the predominant Church there. 
In its cult, however, it is far below the level of the 
Catholic Church in Europe and the United States. Sunk 
in the grossest ignorance and superstition it can scarce- 
ly be classed as a Christian religion in many places. 

The French Huguenots under the lead of Admiral 
Coligny attempted to establish colonies in South Caro- 
lina and Florida, but their efforts failed. The first suc- 
cessful French colonies were made by the French Catho- 
lics in the St. Lawrence Valley and along the Great 
Lakes. They were principally of the nature of military, 
trading, and missionary posts. The chief missionaries 
belonged to the order of Jesuits. The French held this 
region as well as the Mississippi Valley until 1763, when 
the whole territory fell to the English. 

Between the Spanish Catholics in the south and the 
French Catholics in the north was a large territory 
which was eventually to be filled with English colonies. 
At the time of the American Revolution there were thir- 
teen of them. Here Protestantism prevailed almost 
exclusively. In the five southern colonies the Episcopal 
Church was established and supported by the govern- 
ment, while other denominations enjoyed freedom of 
worship. 

In the New England colonies the Congregational 
Church prevailed. Each town was compelled to support 
a church by local taxation. As other denominations 
arose the law was modified so that the tax paid went to 
the support of the church to which the tax-payer be 
longed. If the dissenter did not belong to any organized 



302 THE MODERN ERA 

church his tax went to the regular Congregational 
Church of the town. 

In the Middle colonies the population was less 
homogeneous and a greater variety of religious beliefs 
existed. New York and New Jersey were originally set- 
tled by the Dutch. Among them were a few Lutherans, 
but the great mass of them belonged to the Dutch 
Reformed Church. When they finally fell under the Eng- 
lish the Episcopal Church was favored by the the gov- 
ernment. Pennsylvania and Delaware were first settled 
by Swedish Lutherans, but they eventually fell under 
England and to William Penn and the Quakers. Freedom 
of worship was established and soon large numbers of 
German Lutherans settled especially in Pennsylvania. 

The mountain regions from New England to Georgia 
became the home of immense numbers of Scotch and 
Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. 

113. Separation of Church and State. At the time of 
the establishment of American Independence there was 
some religious test in every state in the Union. In 1785 
the Episcopal Church was disestablished in Virginia and 
full religious liberty and equality secured to all alike. 
This principle was incorporated in the Federal Constitu- 
tion and gradually carried out in all the states. The 
last remnant of state control in church matters was 
abolished in Massachusetts in 1833. 

While a complete separation of Church and State 
thus exists in the United States, and all religions not 
inconsistent with good order, justice, and morality en- 
joy equal privileges, the Christian religion has so 
wrought itself into all our institutions that justices of 
the supreme court and the supreme courts of the various 
states have held that Christianity is a part of the com- 
mon law of the land. 



RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS IN AMERICA 303 

Though there are in the United States over one hun- 
dred different religious denominations, nine-tenths of 
all the members are included in the following eight 
denominations, named in order of numbers: Roman 
Catholics, Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans,* Presbyte- 
rians, Disciples of Christ, Episcopalians, and Congrega- 
tionalists. 

114. The Roman Catholic Church. At the opening of 
our national history there were but few Roman Catho- 
lics in the United States outside of Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania. They were all under the care of the Vicar 
Apostolic of London. In 1789 the Catholic Church in 
America w r as given a separate existence by the estab- 
lishment of an episcopal see in Baltimore. John 
Carroll, a native of Maryland but educated in France, 
was appointed the first American bishop. He was con- 
secrated in London the following year. In 1791 he held 
the first synod of the Catholic clergy in the United 
States. The Reign of Terror in France sent to America 
a large number of able and devoted bishops and priests 
who helped to build up the Church in the new republic. 
Immigration from Ireland rapidly increased the Catholic 
population and it was found necessary to establish new 
bishoprics. In 1808 Baltimore became a metropolitan 
see and Bishop Carroll became the first American arch- 
bishop. At the same time new sees were established in 
Boston, New York, and Bardstown, Ky. Philadelphia 
was added in 1809, and others have since been added 
from time to time. In 1852 the first Plenary or National 
Council assembled in Baltimore. There were then pres- 
ent 6 archbishops and 23 bishops. It condemned secret 
societies, especially Free Masonry. It also condemned 
the public school system, where children of all denomina- 

* For the history of the Lutheran Church in America see the following chapter. 



304 THE MODERN ERA 

tions are received and no instruction given in religion. 
The second Plenary Council was held in 1866 and the 
third in 1884, both in Baltimore. In 1875 Archbishop 
John McCloskey of New York, the successor of the cele- 
brated Bishop John Hughes, was appointed the first 
American Cardinal by Pope Pius IX. 

In 1889 the Church celebrated the first centenary of 
the establishment of the See of Baltimore, the founding 
of the American Catholic hierarchy. This was followed 
by the Congress of Catholic Laymen at Washington. 
The work of this congress was concluded by the found- 
ing of the Catholic University of Washington. 

The Roman Catholic Church in the United States, like every 
other branch of the Church, is under the control of Rome, the 
papal curia being the court of final appeal. The decisions of the 
Plenary Council when sanctioned by the Pope become the the high- 
est administrative norm of the Church. The whole territory is 
divided into provinces, the provinces into dioceses, the dioceses into 
parishes and missions. At the head of each province is an arch- 
bishop, who presides in the provincial synod. In each diocese is a 
bishop, who appoints the pastors for the parishes and missions. 

The Catholic Church in the United States now numbers about 
10,000,000 members. This phenominal growth is due principally to 
the large foreign immigration during the last century, first from 
Ireland, and during the last part of the century, more especially 
from Italy and Austro-Hungarian lands. 

115. The Methodist Episcopal Church. The two founders 
of Methodism, John Wesley and George Whitefield, were 
the first to preach Methodism in America, but they or- 
ganized no churches or societies here. The nucleus of 
the first Methodist Church in America was formed in 
New York by immigrants from Ireland who had be- 
longed to Wesley's societies. They were organized into 
a class in 1766 and were led by Philip Embury, a local 
preacher from Ireland. He was assisted in this work by 
an officer in the British army, named Thomas Webb, 



RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS IN AMERICA 305 

who had been licensed to preach by John Wesley. Dur- 
ing 1768 Webb established classes on Long Island and 
in New Jersey, Delaware, and Philadelphia. At the 
same time a chapel was built in New York and two years 
later (1770) the first Methodist church in America was 
erected in Philadelphia. While Embury and Webb were 
laboring in New York and vicinity another local 
preacher from Ireland, Robert Strawbridge, began 
preaching and organizing classes in Baltimore and 
other places in Maryland. At about the same time 
Robert Williams from England introduced Methodism 
into Virginia and North Carolina. 

In 1771 Francis Asbury was sent over as superin- 
tendent of the American societies. After two years he 
was superseded by an older minister, Thomas Rankin, 
who upon his arrival summoned the first Methodist 
conference in America. It met in Philadelphia in 1773. 
There were then ten preachers and 1,160 members. 

After the close of the Revolutionary War it became 
evident to Wesley that a separation from the Church of 
England and the establishment of an independent Amer- 
ican Church was a necessity. He accordingly conse- 
crated the Rev. Thomas Coke as bishop of the American 
Church and sent him to America with instructions to 
consecrate Francis Asbury as joint bishop. On his 
arrival in 1784 a general conference attended by 60 min- 
isters was held in Baltimore. The Methodist Church 
was now formally organized. It adopted the episcopal 
form of government and a creed consisting of Twenty- 
Five Articles, and composed by Wesley. It also adopted 
as its official name, "The Methodist Episcopal Church 
in the United States of America." 

Under the lead of Bishop Asbury the Methodist 
Church now became the most aggressive of the American 

20 



306 THE MODERN ERA 

churches. The Great West, the Mississippi Valley, was 
opened up, and settlements were made far in advance of 
churches and organized society. Here was a great field 
for itinerant preachers and ''circuit riders", national- 
ism and French infidelity had largely tainted the upper 
layers of society while great ignorance and coarseness 
prevailed among the lower classes. A religious awaken- 
ing was greatly needed. In this work, especially among 
the lower classes, as well as in all reform movements the 
Methodist Church took the lead. It introduced the 
modern Sunday School into America (1786); it esta- 
blished a Book Concern for the publication of religious 
literature (1789); it took advanced ground on the tem- 
perance question, and declared openly against the evils 
of slavery. 

A number of schisms have occurred within the Church 
from time to time, resulting in separate organizations. 
The most important of these was that of 1845 on the 
subject of slavery, when the "Methodist Episcopal 
Church, South" was organized. This division still exists. 

The sole legislative body of the Methodist Episcopal Church is 
the General Conference. Prior to 1872 it was composed exclusively 
of clerical delegates. Lay representation was then introduced. It 
meets every forth year on the first of May. It is presided over by 
the bishops. Besides its legislative functions it elects bishops, 
missionary and educational secretaries, and editors of its periodicals. 
It is also the court of final appeal. The lower judicatory and ad- 
ministrative bodies are the judicial conference, the annual con- 
ference, the district conference, and the quarterly conference. 

116. The Baptists. The first Baptist church in Amer- 
ica was founded by Eoger Williams in Rhode Island. 
Churches were gradually established in other places, as 
for instance in Boston (1665), Charleston, S.C., (1693), 
Philadelphia (1698). They adhered to the principles of 
their founder and were the foremost advocates of the 



RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS IN AMERICA 307 

doctrine of the separation of Church and State. After 
the Revolution their numbers rapidly increased. Their 
earliest institution of learning, Brown University, was 
founded in 1765. 

In church government they are congregationalists. 
They recognize no higher office than pastor. Each con- 
gregation is independent of every other congregation. 
There is, however, an official intercommunion of 
churches and for missionary and educational purposes 
associations are formed. 

There are many divisions among the Baptists, but 
most of them are small. The Regular Baptists include 
at least fifteen-sixteenths of the whole number, and are 
divided into Northern, Southern, and Colored. They 
areCalvinists in doctrine and practice close communion. 
The Northern and Southern divisions separated on the 
slave question in 1845. 

117. The Presbyterians. The Presbyterian Church in 
America was at first composed of various elements, but 
most largely of the Scotch and Scotch-Irish. The early 
Presbyterian immigrants usually joined with other 
churches existing in the different colonies. Their first 
minister in this county was Rev. Francis Makemie who 
arrived in 1683. He founded churches in Maryland and 
Virginia and extended his labors into the Carolinas. 
Churches were also early established in Pennsylvania, 
New Jerse}', New York, and New England. The first 
presbytery, that of Philadelphia, was organized in 1705, 
and the first synod, composed of three presbyteries, was 
formed in 1716. Owing to industrial oppression im- 
mense numbers of Scotch-Irish emigrated to America 
during the first half of the 18th century, and the Pres- 
byterian Church in the colonies experienced a rapid 



308 THE MODERN ERA 

growth. At the close of the Revolution there were six- 
teen presbyteries, grouped into four synods. In 1789 
the first General Assembly convened in Philadelphia. It 
adopted with slight modifications the Westminster 
Confession, and also the form of government and dis- 
cipline of the Scottish Church with such modifications 
as the new conditions required. 

In the meantime there were some churches which 
stood aloof from the main body of Presbyterians. They 
were the "Associate" and the "Associate Reformed" 
Churches. These two finally united, in 1858, and formed 
the United Presbyterian Church. They accept the West- 
minster Confession, condemn secret societies, and use 
only the Book of Psalms for singing at their services. 

During the closing years of the 18th century and the 
first years of the 19th, a great spiritual awakening 
spread over our country, beginning in Kentucky. The 
great increase in churches and members created a great 
demand for ministers and a sufficient number could not 
be found. The Cumberland presbytery then took the 
step of ordaining to the ministry men without the edu- 
cational requirements. This action finally led to a- 
separation and to the establishment of the Cumberland 
Presbyterian Church in 1810. But behind this move- 
ment there was one of still greater importance. The 
Cumberland Presbyterians could not accept the "Five 
Points" of Calvinism,* especially the doctrine of uncon- 
ditional election and limited atonement, to which the 
main body strictly adhered. The new body enjoyed a 
flourishing existence for nearly a hundred years. In 
1906 the two bodies were again united after the main 
body had modified its confessional basis. 

* The so-called ''Five Points 1 ' 1 of Calvinism are these: Unconditional election; 
limited atonement; complete impotency of the human will; irresistible grace; and the 
perseverance of believers. (Fisher.) 



RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS IN AMERICA 309 

The question of slavery and secession also agitated 
the Presbyterian Church and finally led to a separation 
between the Northern and Southern Churches in 1861, 
and the formation of the Southern General Assembly. 
Various efforts have been made to unite the two, but so 
far they have not been crowned with success. 

118. The Disciples of Christ. The Disciples of Christ, 
or Campbellites as they are also called, arose in Western 
Pennsylvania about the year 1810. Their founder was 
Alexander Campbell, a Presbyterian minister from the 
north of Ireland. He rejected infant baptism and held 
that immersion was the only proper mode of baptizing. 
He denounced all human creeds and confessions and de- 
clared that the Bible was the only creed necessary. He 
was at first associated with the Baptists, but on 
account of doctrinal differences he was excluded from 
their fellowship in 1827, since which time this Church 
may be regarded as having had a separate existence. 

While it claims to have no doctrinal confession, it 
adheres strictly to the doctrine of adult baptism and 
immersion. On other points it does not differ materially 
from other Reformed Churches. In its polity it is strict- 
ly congregational, the various churches associating in 
the prosecution of missionary and educational work. 

119. The Protestant Episcopal Church. The Episcopal 
Church was the first permanent Protestant Church in 
America. It was established at Jamestown, Virginia, in 
1607. During the Colonial period it was the established 
Church in most of the colonies. It was under the over- 
sight of the bishop of London, There was no American 
bishop, and the clergy had to go to England to receive 
their ordination. The Revolutionary -War and the 
establishment of American independence completely dis- 
organized the Epicopal Church. The first question was 



310 THE MODERN ERA 

how to obtain bishops. The Episcopalians of Con- 
necticut sent Samuel Seabury to England to be conse- 
crated as their bishop. He was refused and went to 
Scotland, where he was consecrated by three Scottish 
bishops in 1784. In 1785 a general convention of lay 
and clerical delegates from the Episcopalians in New 
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 
Virginia, and South Carolina met in Philadelphia. This 
convention took steps toward the organization of the 
Episcopal Church in America, and made application to 
the English Church for the consecration of bishops for 
the American Church. William White of Pennsylvania 
and Samuel Provoost of New York had been designated 
by their respective parishes for this office. They were 
consecrated by the archbishop of Canterbury in 1787. 
Three years later James Madison of Virginia was like- 
wise consecrated for the American Church. Thus was 
the Episcopal Church in the United States organized and 
equipped. In doctrine and polity it is practically the 
same as the Church of England. 

120. The Congregationalists. The Congregational 
Church originated in England during the latter part of 
Elizabeth's reign. The first Congregational Church in 
America came over in the Mayflower in 1620. Congre- 
gationalism soon became the established religion in the 
greater part of New England. In doctrine it was in 
substantial accord with Presbyterianism as it had 
adopted the Westminster Confession at a general synod 
in Cambridge in 1648. Hence, it was comparatively 
easy for the Presbyterians and Congregationalists to 
unite where their numbers were too few to form separate 
churches. Their first schools were Harvard and Yale, 
but when Unitarianism established itself at Har- 
vard, Andover Theological Seminary was founded in 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 311 

order to provide "for the Church a learned, orthodox, 
and pious ministry." 

In New England the growth of the Church was ar- 
rested by the spread of Unitarianism while in the West 
large numbers of Congregationalists were absorbed by 
the Presbyterians. This led many prominent Congrega- 
tionalists to the conviction that the interests of their 
Church must be cared for. This finally resulted in the 
assembling of a great National Council of Congrega- 
tionalists in Boston in 1865. Another was held in Ober- 
lin, Ohio, in 1871. At the latter a permanent body was 
organized to meet every third year under the name of 
"The National Council of the Congregational Churches 
of the United States." At one of these Councils (1883), 
a new Confession consisting of twelve articles was adopt- 
ed. Thus while the Congregational Church leaves the 
individual congregations to adopt their confession and 
manage their own affairs, it has a strong central or- 
ganization. 



H. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN 
AMERICA. 

121. The Dutch. The first Lutherans in America came 
from Holland. They arrived with other Dutch immi- 
grants as early as 1623 and settled on Manhattan Is- 
land, where the city of New York now stands. The gov- 
ernment and the great mass of the colonists belonged 
to the Reformed Church of the Synod of Dort (§93) and 
would not tolerate any other worship. It was not before 
1657 that the Lutherans with the help of their brethren 
in Amsterdam were able to secure a pastor. There were 



312 THE MODERN ERA 

then two congregations in the colony, one at New Amster- 
dam (New York), and one near Fort Orange (Albany). 
The new pastor, John Ernest Goet water, was, however, 
not permitted to conduct any public services, and after 
enduring continual vexations he was forcibly banished 
from the colony the following year. But fortunately 
the colony soon fell under English control, and greater 
freedom of religion was enjoyed. 

122. The Swedes. The Swedes were, however, the first 
Lutherans to organize congregations, erect churches, 
and conduct public services in America. In 1637 a 
company was sent out from Sweden which landed in 
1638 near the present city of Lewes, Del. Their colony 
and fort they named Christina in honor of the queen of 
Sweden. Their first pastor, Reorus Torkillus, arrived 
the following year. Under his care the first Lutheran 
house of worship w T as built. Like the churches in other 
early colonies it was built to serve also as a place of 
defence against the Indians in case of necessity. Rev. 
Torkillus died 1643 and was succeeded by the Rev. 
John Campanius who arrived the same year. The latter 
carried on missionary work among the Indians in addi- 
tion to his pastoral work, and translated Luther's 
smaller catechism into the language of the Delaware 
Indians. A number of Lutheran churches were estab- 
lished as the colony grew and expanded. From time 
to time pastors came over from the fatherland. After 
a period of seventeen years this flourishing colony un- 
fortunately fell into the hands of the Dutch, but after 
nine years it was ceded by them to the English Crown 
(1664). 

When the colony had thus fallen into other hands, 
the colonists were wholly neglected by the mother 
country even in religious matters. They were without 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 



313 



pastors and their bibles, hymn-books, and other books 
of devotion were few and badly worn. Time and again 
they had sought to secure aid from home but in vain. 




The Gloria Dei Church. 



Finally when all hope seemed gone they were providen- 
tially enabled to send a letter to Charles XI., then king 
of Sweden. They pictured the destitute condition of the 
colony in spiritual matters and begged that pastors be 



314 THE MODERN ERA 

sent them. They also asked for Books — 12 Bibles, 3 
Books of Sermons, 42 Books of Devotion, 100 Hymn- 
Books, 200 Catechisms, and 200 ABC-Books— for all of 
which .they promised prompt payment. This letter 
made a deep impression on the king. He caused copies 
of it to be circulated throughout the kingdom, and the 
reading of it brought tears to many eyes. With the help 
of Jesper Svedberg suitable men were secured for the 
mission. These were Andreas Rudman, Eric Bjork, and 
Jonas Auren. At last in 1696 a ship carrying these men 
and a large supply of books set sail for America. A 
brighter day now dawned for the colony. Rudman took 
charge of the congregation at Wicacoa (Philadelphia), 
where before long the Gloria Dei Church was built and 
dedicated (1700). Bjork became the pastor of the Chris- 
tina congregation at Wilmington. Here too a new 
church was built. It was dedicated on Trinity Sunday 
1699 and received the name of The Holy Trinity Church. It 
is now better known as The Old Swedes Church. 

But after the Revolution as the communication with 
the mother country almost wholly ceased, and no 
Lutheran pastors came over to take the place of those 
who died or returned home, the Lutheran churches one 
by one went over to the Episcopalians, who to-day own 
and control those historic places. The last Swedish 
Lutheran pastor, Dr. N. Collin, died in 1831. 

123. The Germans. Owing to the ravages of the 
Thirty Years' W r ar and the lack of a central govern- 
ment, the idea of colonization was slow to develop 
among the Germans. The first German Lutheran church 
in America was built by Rev. Justus Falckner in what 
was known as Falckner's Swamp (New Hanover, Pa.) 
in 1703, and the first German pastor was the Rev. 
Justus Falckner, who was ordained by the Swedish 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 315 

Lutheran pastors in the Gloria Dei church at Wicacoa 
in 1703. This was the first Lutheran ordination in 
America. Falckner's parish covered about 200 miles. 
This he faithfully served until his death in 1723. 

The devastations of the Palatinate by the armies of 
Louis XIV. of France caused thousands of refugees to 
flock to England and Holland for shelter. Under the 
protection of the English Crown and at its expense, 
some sixty of these refugees, led by the Lutheran pas- 
tor, Joshua von Kocherthal, sailed from England in 
1708 and settled on the west bank of the Hudson. 
Large bodies of South German Lutherans followed them 
and settled in New York and Pennsylvania. They were 
served first by Kocherthal and Falckner, and afterwards 
by Kev. W. Christopher Berkenmeier and Rev. Michael 
Christian Knoll. A number of the refugees from the 
Palatinate settled New. Berne, N. C, in 1710. Others 
settled in Charleston, S. C. 

One of the most beautiful stories in the historj^ of the 
Lutheran Church is that of the Salzburgers. Driven 
from their homes in Upper Austria by one of the most 
cruel and relentless persecutions in modern times, they 
went forth singing their songs of victory and praise in 
the midst of their sufferings, seeking new homes where 
the}' could enjoy freedom to worship their God. Some 
settled in Prussia, others in Holland, Sweden, England, 
and America. The latter group accepted the invitation 
of the Society in England for Propagating the Gospel, 
and prepared to embark for the new colony of Georgia. 
They were given a free passage, and under the lead of 
their pastors, Rev. John Martin Bolzius and Rev. Israel 
Christian Gronau, both of whom had been pupils in the 
Orphan School at Halle, they formed their first settle- 
ment in Georgia, which they appropriately named 



316 THE MODERN ERA 

Ebenezer (1734) . Thus was the Lutheran Church planted 
in the far South. Pennsylvania, hovvever, became the 
stronghold of Luteranism in the early history of the 
Church. From its fertile moutain valleys Lutherans 
gradually poured into Western Maryland and the Valley 
of Virginia and then into Tennessee and the Carolinas, 
and before the end of the century Lutheranism had been 
firmly planted in all the states from New York to 
Georgia. 

124. The Organization of the Lutheran Church. But for 
a long time these Lutheran churches, scattered over 
these immense wildernesses, remained separated, often 
without pastors, and without any organic connection 
one with another. The work of organizing the early 
Lutheran Church in this country fell to the Rev. Henry 
Melchior Muhlenberg, who has often been called the 
Patriach of the Lutheran Church in America. He had 
oeen selected for this mission by Dr. Gotthelf August 
Francke, a worthy son and successor of the great 
August Herman Francke, the founder of the Franckean 
Institutions at Halle (§86). He arrived in Philadelphia 
in November 1742. He was then in his 32nd year. 
Trained in the school of German Pietism in its best 
days, richly endowed in heart and mind, possessed of a 
sound judgment and practical sense, and filled with love 
for the salvation of souls and with faith in God and the 
future of the Church in America, he was especially 
equipped for the great work he was called to accomplish. 
The call had gone forth from three churches, namely 
Philadelphia, Providence, and New Hanover, and these 
became the center and nucleus of his work. Gradually 
his field extended far beyond these limits until the whole 
continent became his parish. In 1748 he organized the 
first Evangelical Lutheran Synod in America, in Phila- 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 



317 



delphia. This body is known to-day as the Evangelical 
Lutheran Ministerium of Pennsylvania and Adjacent 
States. There were present at this organization the 
following ministers: Sandin and Nsesman of the Swedish 




Henry Melchior Muhlenberg. 



Churches, and Muhlenberg, Brunnholtz, Handschuh, 
Kurtz, and Hartwig of the German. 

As the Church grew and developed other bodies were 
organized. In 1787 the Ministerium of New York was 
formed. The North Carolina Synod followed in 1803; 
the Ohio Synod in 1818; the Maryland and Virginia 
Synod in 1820; the Tennessee in 1820. 



318 THE MODERN ERA 

In 1820 delegates from the Pennsylvania, the New 
York, the North Carolina, and the Maryland and Vir- 
ginia Synods met at Hagerstown, McL, for the purpose 
of organizing a General Synod of the Lutheran Church 
in America. The plan was agreed to and the first meet- 
ing of the General Synod was held at Frederick, Md., in 
1824. One of the first important acts of this body was 
the establishment of the Theological seminary at Get- 
tysburg, Pa., in 1826. As new synods were formed they 
joined, with few exceptions, the general body until in 
1860 it embraced 26 synods. The Joint Synod of Ohio, 
the oldest synod west of the Alleghany Mountains, 
stood aloof, and it still remains an independent syn- 
od. It has churches in a large number of states. Its 
chief seat of learning is Capital University in Columbus, 
Ohio. At the outbreak of the Civil War the southern 
synods withdrew and organized the General Synod 
South. This was reorganized in 1886, and is now 
known as the "United Synod of the Evangelical Lu- 
theran Church in the South." 

The influence of Rationalism (§§ 89 and 91) was felt 
by the Lutheran Church also in America and led to a 
laxity in doctrinal views. The revival of Lutheranism 
begun by Harms in 1817 also exerted a powerful in- 
fluence in America, especially through the immigration 
of large bodies of Lutherans. Both of these tendencies 
were felt within the General Synod, and finally led to a 
rupture. A call was issued by the Ministerium of Penn- 
sylvania in 1866 "to Evangelical Lutheran Synods, 
ministers, and congregations in the United States and 
Canadas, which confess the Unaltered Augsburg Con- 
fession, inviting them to unite in a convention for the 
purpose of forming a union of Lutheran Synods." This 
call led to a preliminary convention in Heading, Pa., 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA. 



319 




C. P. KrAuth. 



320 THE MODERN ERA 

December 1866 and the organization of "The General 
Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church i America' - 
at Ft. Wayne, Ind , in November 1867. The greatest 
champion of Conservative Lutheranism during this 
period was unquestionably Dr. C. P. Krauth (died 1883), 
the most renowned theologian the American Lutheran 
Church has ever produced. 

125. Later German Accessions The immense numbers 
of German Lutherans who have come to this country 
during the last two generations have all been more or 
less affected by the conditions of the Church in the home 
country (§§ 91 and 97). Some of them have joined one 
or another of the synods already existing, but by far 
the larger portion of them have organized synods of 
their own. The first of these was the Buffalo Synod, 
organized at Buffalo, N. Y., in 1815, by the Rev. J. A. 
A. Grabau who had been deposed as pastor of a church 
in Erfurt and imprisoned for refusing to submit to the 
Church Union decreed by the king of Prussia (§97). The 
synod has never been a large body. Its theological 
seminary (Martin Luther) is located at Buffalo, N. Y. 

By far the largest of all the Lutheran synods is the 
"German Evangelical Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and 
other States", better known as the "Missouri Synod 1 '. 
The first congregations of the synod were formed in 
Missouri in 1839 by a band of immigrants from Saxony. 
The synod was organized at Chicago in 1817. The 
leading man in the synod for forty years was the Rev. 
Dr. C. F. W. Walther (died 1887)." On the subject of 
election the doctrinal position of the synod approaches 
very closely to Calvinism . 

The Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa was organ- 
ized in 1854. It then numbered four ministers and three 
congregations. It is to-day a flourishing synod of 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 321 

nearly 600 pastors and about 900 congregations. It 
has always remained an independent synod though it 
has always maintained friendly relations with the 
General Council. Its leading men have been the two 
brothers Revs. Sigmund and Gottfried Fritschel and 
Rev. J. Deindoerfer. Its theological seminary is at Du- 
buque, its chief college at Clinton, la. 

In 1872, in Milwaukee, Wis., the Synodical Conference 
was formed by the Missouri Synod and such other syn- 
ods as could affiliate with it. It embraces to-day 
(1906) besides the Missouri Synod, the Wisconsin Synod 
(organized in 1852), the Minnesota Synod (organized 
in 1860), the Michigan Synod (organized in 1860), the 
English Synod of Missouri (organized in 1888), and 
the Synod of Nebraska and other States (organized in 
1903). It is the largest of all the general bodies, em- 
bracing nearly one-third of all the Lutherans in 
America. 

126. The Norwegians, Danes, Icelanders, etc. The first 
band of immigrants from Norway to the United States 
arrived in 1825 and settled in Rochester, N. Y. Eleven 
years later, 1836, the first Norwegian settlement in the 
West was made in La Salle Co., Illinois. From that 
time the stream of Norwegian immigration became 
steady and settlements were made in northern Illinois 
and in Wisconsin. For a number of years these settlers 
were left without spiritual care for there were no pastors 
among them. While they were all sound Lutherans in 
confession, three parties existed among them. Some 
had belonged to the Hauge movement in Norway and 
were of a decidedly pietistic character. Others were in 
full sympathy with the State Church and were opposed 
to pietism and the employment of laymen as preachers 

21 



322 THE MODERN ERA 

and leaders. Others again formed a moderate party 
between these two. 

The first minister among them, Rev. C. L. Clausen, 
"who had -been called to the congregations at Muskego 
and Yorksville, Wis., was ordained by a German Lu- 
theran pastor of Milwaukee in 1843. Two years later 
the first Norwegian church was built at Muskego. 

In 1846 the first steps were taken toward the organ- 
ization of the "Hauge Synod". The conservative Nor- 
wegians organized the "Norwegian Synod" in 1853. 
Other pastors and congregations together with the 
Swedes joined the Synod of Northern Illinois (organized 
in 1851). In 1860 the Swedes and Norwegians separat- 
ed from that synod and organized the Augustana 
Synod. For ten years they worked harmoniously 
together and then separated with mutual good- will 
(1870). The Norwegian brethren were immediately split 
up and remained divided until 1890, when they united 
under the name of the "United Norwegian Lutheran 
Church of America." It was hoped that the Hauge 
Synod would also join in this union, but thus far it has 
failed to do so. The Norwegian Synod has always stood 
aloof from the movement. Besides these three synods 
there is a fourth one known as the "Lutheran Free 
Church." All these synods remain independent of any 
general body. 

The work among the Danes was begun in 1869. 
There are now two Danish Lutheran bodies in America: 
the "Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America" 
(organized in 1872) and the "United Danish Evangelical 
Lutheran Church in America (organized in 1896). The 
latter was formed by the union of two bodies dating 
respectively from 1884 and 1894. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 323 

There is also a synod of Icelanders (organized in 
1885); one of Finns, the Suomi Synod (organized in 
1889); and one of Slavonians, the Slovak Synod of 
Pennsylvania (organized in ] 902.) 

127. The Augustana Synod. The Swedish Lutheran 
churches on the Delaware had ceased to be Lutheran 
churches and had passed into the hands of the Episco- 
palians. But this was not to be the end of the Swedish 
Lutheran Church in America. In 1845 several families 
arrived from Ostergotland, Sweden, and formed a settle- 
ment in New Sweden, la. The following year the erratic 
Eric Janson arrived with his followers and established 
his communistic colony at Bishop Hill, Illinois. The 
way for Swedish immigration was now opened and year 
after year small parties arrived until 1853, when the 
tide of immigration set in with greater force. The early 
settlements were made in Sugar Grove, Pa.; Jamestown, 
N. Y.; Chicago, Andover, Kock Island, Moline, Gales- 
burg, and other places in Illinois; Burlington and New 
Sweden, la.; and in Chisago, Carver, Goodhue, and 
other counties in Minnesota. 

In 1848 the settlers in New Sweden, la., organized 
themselves into a Swedish Lutheran congregation and 
chose one of their members, M. F. Hokanson, as pastor 
to preach the Word and to administer the sacraments. 
In 1849 Rev. Lars Paul Esbjorn (died 1870), the 
founder of the Swedish Lutheran Church in America, 
arrived to minister to the spiritual needs of his scat- 
tered countrymen. He located in Andover, 111., and at 
once took up his work. Congregations were organized 
in Andover (1850), in Moline (1850), and Galesburg 
(1851), and a number other places were visited. In 1851 
he made a tour through the East to solicit funds for 
church buildings. His efforts were successful. Among 



324 



THE MODERN ERA 



the donors was the celebrated Jenny Lind, who was 
then making a tour in the United States, and who do- 
nated |1,500 to the fund. With aid thus secured the 




Lars Paul Esbjorn. 



first churches were erected in Andover, Moline, and New 
Sweden. 

In the fall of 1851 a number of American Lutherans 
met in Cedarville, 111., for the purpose of uniting them- 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 



325 



selves into a synod. Rev. Esbjorn and some Norwegian 
pastors were also present and joined in the work. Thus 
was the Synod of Northern Illinois organized and the 




Erland Carlsson. 

young Swedish Lutheran churches at once brought into 
synodical connections. 

Four able men soon arrived from Sweden to engage 
as pastors and leaders in the great work. They were: 
T. N. Hasselquist, in 1852, stationed at Galesburg; 
Erland Carlsson, in 1853, stationed at Chicago; Jonas 



326 THE MODERN ERA 

Swensson and O. C. T. Andren, both in 1856, the former 
stationed in Jamestown and Sugar Grove and the latter 
in Moline. These were all the accessions of pastors from 
Sweden that the churches received during the pioneer 
days.* After this they had to depend upon their own 
resources for pastors. Fortunately suitable material 
was found. The first Swedish pastor ordained among 
them was M. F. Hokanson, in 1853. He had already 
begun the work in New Sweden and now continued in 
charge of the work in Iowa. Tn 1856, after having 
served a year as licentiates, Eric Norelius, P. A. Ceder- 
stam, and A. Andreen were ordained to the holy min- 
istry, and three years later P. Beckman, Peter Carlson, 
and P. J. C. Boreen, after having also served as licen- 
tiates, received ordination. The two first and the three 
last became the pioneers in the work in Minnesota. Rev. 
Andreen was stationed in Rockford, 111. 

One of the first duties of the Church thus founded was 
to provide for the necessary training of ministers. The 
Synod of Northern Illinois together with other bodies 
had established such an institution at Springfield, 111. 
At the meeting of the synod in Waverly, 111., in 1855, it 
was proposed to establish a Scandinavian professorship 
at this institution. The plan met mith much favor, 
and in the fall of 1858 the new department was opened 
with Rev. L. P. Esbjorn as theological professor. Doc- 
trinal differences had existed between the American and 
Scandinavian members of the synod from the very be- 
ginning. These differences were the same as those exist- 
ing in the General Synod which finally led to the organ- 
ization of the General Council. This together with other 
complications led Prof. Esbjorn to resign his professor- 

* The next two ministers from Sweden were Dr. A. R. Cervin, in 1864, and Dr. 
O. Olsson, in 1869. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 327 

ship in April 1860, and to withdraw to Chicago. The 
Scandinavian students, with the exception of two, 
withdrew with him. The Scandinavian members of the 
Synod then met in a general conference in Chicago, 
April 23-28, and unanimously approved Prof . Esbjorn's 
action, and further resolved to withdraw from the Syn- 
od of Northern Illinois and to establish a synod and 
theological seminary of their own. 

In accordance with this resolution, the Swedish and 
Norwegian pastors and delegates met in the Norwegian 
church on Jefferson Prairie, near Clinton, Kock County, 
Wis., June 5—11, 1860, and organized ''The Scan- 
dinavian Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod of 
North America", or briefly "The Augustana Synod". 
Constitutions were adopted for the synod and the 
theological seminary. The new institution was to be 
known as "Augustana Seminary", and was temporarily 
located in Chicago. Professor L. P. Esbjorn w r as elected 
its first professor and president and aboard of directors 
was chosen. Dr. T. N. Hasselquist was elected president 
of the synod, and to this position he was re-elected 
year after year until 1870. 

At the time of the organization of the synod, the 
Swedish branch of it numbered 17 pastors (including 5 
ordained at this meeting), 36 congregations, 21 church 
edifices, and 3,747 communicant members; the Nor- 
wegians numbered 10 pastors (including 3 ordained at 
the meeting), 13 congregations, 8 church edifices, and 
1,220 communicant members. They were grouped into 
three conferences: one Norwegian, the Chicago Confer- 
ence; and two Swedish, the Mississippi (afterwards Illi- 
nois) and the Minnesota.* The Swedes and Norwegians 

* These conferences were not organized now, but had existed befoie. The Mis- 
sissippi Conference was organized in 1853, and the Minnesota in 1858. 



328 



THE MODERN ERA 




T. N. Hasselquist. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 



329 



worked harmoniously together until 1870, when they 
separated with mutual good- will and well-wishes. 

At the time of the separation the Swedish part of the 
synod numbered 46 pastors, 110 congregations, 57 
church edifices, and 16,960 communicant members. 
Three new conferences were now added, New York, Iowa, 
and Kansas, and the boundaries of all the conferences 
were definitely fixed. In 1886 the Nebraska Conference 
was organized and 
seven 3 T ears later the 
Columbia and Califor- 
nia Conferences were 
added, making eight 
conferences in all. 

The Synod has an 
immense home mis- 
sion field embracing 
at present (1906) 
nearly all the states 
and territories of the 
Union and most of 
the provinces and ter- 
ritories of Canada. 
The greater part of 
this work is done 
through the mission 
boards of the various 
conferences, the central mission board of the synod 
having charge of such fields as lie outside of the bounds 
of the conferences. Its foreign mission, work is carried 
on through the General Council of which the Synod is 
a member. 

There have never been any doctrinal controversies 
nor any schism within the Synod. The only questions 




C O. Rosenius. 



330 THE MODERN ERA 

that have arisen have been mainly of a constitutional, 
financial, and educational nature. A spirit of true pie- 
tism characterized the Synod. especially during the earlier 
years, and the influence of Dr. Fjellstedt, C. O. Rosenius 
(§ 92), and Pastor Ahlberg was deeply felt. On the 
death of C. 0. Rosenius and the rise of the Walden- 
stromian heresy in Sweden, the doctrine of the atone- 
ment was earnestly discussed and carefully studied by 
both pastors and people. This led to a deeper and 
clearer insight into the Word of God and has borne 
blessed fruit throughout the Synod. 

The name Augustana was suggested by Rev., afterwards Dr., 
Eric Norelius. It was a most appropriate name as it gave expres- 
sion to the sound doctrinal position of the Synod (The Augsburg 
Confession is known in Latin as the Confessio Augustana). The 
full official name of the Synod, "The Scandinavian Evangelical 
Lutheran Augustana Synod of North America", was changed in 
1894 by dropping the word "Scandinavian". 

The Synod is a free-church organization and is constituted as 
follows: 1) the Congregations, 1,027 in number (report of 1905), 
2) which are loosely grouped into Mission Districts', 3) the congrega- 
tions and mission districts are further united into Conferences', 4) 
the conferences are united in the Synod', 4) the Synod is united 
with other Lutheran bodies in the General Council. 

The congregations manage their own local affairs and choose 
their own pastor. The government is exercised by the pastor, the 
church council (pastor and deacons) , the board of trustees, and the 
congregation itself. 

The Mission Districts are simply smaller church territories, 
united for edification and the promotion of the interests of the 
Church. They have limited disciplinary power. Meetings are 
usually held once a month. They are of comparatively recent 
origin. 

The Conferences are (1906) eight in number: 1) New York, em- 
bracing all the New England States, New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Ohio. 2) Illinois, embrac- 
ing Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and eastern Wisconsin. 3) Mini 
nesota, embracing Minnesota, northwestern Wisconsin, North and 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 331 

South Dakota, and Ontario, Manitoba, Assiniboia, Alberta, and 
Saskatchewan in Canada. 4) Iowa, embracing Iowa and Missouri, 
except Kansas City. 5) Kansas, embracing Kansas, Colorado, 
Texas, and Kansas City, Mo. 6) Nebraska, embracing Nebraska 
and Wyoming. 7) Columbia, embracing Oregon, Washington, 
northern Idaho, and British Columbia. 8) California, including 
only the State of California. All other parts of the Continent in 
which the Synod conducts work belong to the general mission field 
of the Synod. They are: 1) Montana, constituting one mission 
district, entitled to representation at the meeting of Synod. 2) Utah 
and southern Idaho, also constituting a district with right of repre- 
sentation. 3) Alabama and Florida. 4) Alaska. The last two 
divisions have not yet been organized into mission districts. The 
conferences meet annually. To these meetings each congregation 
is entitled to one lay and one clerical delegate. Each conference 
has charge of the discipline of its pastors, of its educational and 
home mission work, and such church and charitable institutions as 
it may have established within its borders. 

The Synod holds annual conventions, composed of lay and 
clerical delegates chosen by the conferences. It has charge of the 
examination and ordination of candidates for the ministry; the 
liturgy, hymn-books, and text-books used in the churches and 
schools; the foreign mission work; the home mission work on the 
general field; its institution of learning, Augustana College and 
Theological Seminary; its publishing house, Augustana Book Con- 
cern; its immigrant homes (New York and Boston); its deaconess 
institute (Omaha) ; and finally it establishes conferences, defines 
their territorial limits, approves their constitutions, and serves as 
a court of appeals in certain cases. Its officers, president, vice 
president, secretary, and treasurer, are elected biennially. The 
successive presidents of the synod have been: Rev. T. N. Hassel- 
quist, D. D., 1860-1870; Rev. Jonas Swensson, 1870-1873; Rev. 
Eric Norelius, D. D., 1874-1881; Rev. Erland Cadsson, D. D., 
1881-1888; Rev. S. P. A. Lindahl, D. D., 1888-1891; Rev. P. J. 
Sward, D. D., 1891-1899; Rev. Eric Norelius, D. D., 1899- 

Augustana College and Theological Seminary. The seminary was 
opened in Chicago in 1860. It was removed to Paxton, Ford Co., 
111., in 1863 and incorporated under the laws of the state the same 
year. It received its charter from the Illinois Legislature in 1865. 
This was amended by the same body in 1869. By its charter it was 



332 



THE MODERN ERA 



empowered to confer all the literary, scientific, and honorary de- 
grees usually conferred by colleges and universities. In 1875 it 
was moved to Rock Island, 111., where it still remains. The 
original plan of the institution contemplated three departments: 
an academy, a college, and a theological seminary. The college 
department necessarily developed slowly, its first class graduating 
in 1877. Other departments have since been added, the Conserva- 
tory of Music (1887) and the Business College (1888). One of the 
early patrons of the institution was the king of Sweden, Charles 




Augustana College and Theological Seminary. 

XV., who donated 5,000 volumes to the library and authorized two 
collections, during two successive years, to be taken up in all 
the churches of the kingdom. This was a great help in the days 
of small beginnings. The development of the institution has been 
that of steady growth in full conformity with the tenets and the 
spirit of the Church. To its efficient work both in the college and 
the seminary the Synod owes much of its phenominal growth. The 
successive presidents have been: Rev. L. P. Esbjorn, 1860—1863; 
Rev. T. N. Hasselquist, D. D., 1863-1891; Rev. O. Olsson, D. D., 
1891-1900; Rev. Gustav Andreen, Ph. D„ 1901-. 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 333 

Gustavus Adolphus College. The need of more pastors and a 
competent corps of parochial school teachers called into existence a 
school in Minnesota. It was opened in Red Wing, during the winter 
of 1862, under the name of Minnesota Elementar Skola. By a 




O. Olsson. 



popular vote among the churches it was removed the following 
year to East Union, Carver Co., where, under the name of SL 
Ansgar's Academy, it remained till the spring of 1876. Then a bonus 
of $10,000 and 10 acres of land was accepted and the school was 



334 THE MODERN ERA 

moved to St. Peter, Minn., where under the name of Gustavus 
Adolphus College, it still remains. Its college curriculum was com- 
pleted in 1889, and its first class graduated in May 1890. The 
institution has always been characterized by thoroughness, loyalty 
to the Church, true conservatism, and firm discipline. It is owned 
and controlled by the Minnesota Conference. 

Bethany College, Lindsborg, Kansas, was founded in 1881 by Dr. 
C. A. Swensson (died 1904). Its aim was to educate ministers, 
teachers, organists, businessmen, and the young people of the 
Church in general. Its first college class was graduated in 1891. 
It has always been progressive, and its influence has been felt in 
wide circles. It is owned and controlled by the Kansas Conference. 

Luther Academy, Wahoo, Nebraska, was opened in 1883. It has 
consistently maintained the purpose of its founders to serve as an 
academy for the education of the young people of the Church and 
as a feeder to the colleges of the Synod. Its work has always been 
thorough, its spirit conservative. It belongs to the Nebraska 
Conference. 

Upsala College, Kenilworth, New Jersey, was founded in 1893 
under the auspices of the New York Conference. Its aims, methods, 
and courses are the same as those of the other institutions in the 
Synod. Its first college class graduated in 1905. 

Northwestern College, Fergus Falls, Minnesota, was founded in 
1900 by the Alexandria Mission Dirtrict of the Minnesota Confer- 
ence. It has an immense field in the great Northwest. While it is 
not owned and controlled by the Conference it enjoys its moral 
support, and receives a portion of all the school funds collected in 
the seven northern mission districts of the Conference. 

Minnesota College in Minneapolis, Minnesota, was founded in 1904. 
Its chief field are the ' 'twin cities" and vicinity. It is owned and 
controlled by the Minnesota Conference. 

Trinity College, Round Rock, Texas, is the youngest of the educa- 
tional institutions of the Synod. It was founded in 1905, and belongs 
to the Austin District of the Kansas Conference. 

Charitable Institutions. The Synod has also been very active in 
works of charity and mercy, but most of this work has been done 
by the conferences. The Synod itself owns and supports the "Im- 
manuel Deaconess Institute" with a hospital and orphan home in 
Omaha, Nebraska. The Illinois Conference supports two orphan 
homes, in Andover and Joliet, 111., the "Augustana Hospital" in 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 335 

Chicago, and one home for the aged in Joliet. The Minnesota 
Conference supports an orphan home in Vasa, Minn., the "Bethesda 
Hospital" with a deaconess home in St. Paul, and a home for aged 
in Chisago City, Minn. The Iowa Conference has an orphan home 
in Stanton, Iowa. The Kansas Conference supports an orphan 
home in Mariadahl, Kansas. The New York Conference also sup- 
ports an orphan home in Jamestown, N. Y. 

Publications. In January 1855 Dr. T. N. Hasselquist published 
the first number of the oldest Swedish weekly newspaper in Amer- 
ica, "Hemlandet". In 1856 he also published "Det Ratta Hemlan- 
det", which after many metamorphoses became "Augustana", the 
official organ of the Synod. The weekly and monthly, secular, 
church, and semi-church papers have since wonderfully multiplied 
within the Synod. A publishing house with headquarters in Chi- 
cago was established in 1858. This was sold in 1874 to Engberg 
and Holmberg of Chicago. Preparatory steps were, however, soon 
taken for the establishmet of another synodical publishing house. 
But it was not before 1889 that the Synod assumed control of the 
new establishment. This is known as the Augustana Book Concern. 
It is located in Rock Island, and has branch offices in St. Paul and 
New York. 

128. Summary of the Lutheran Church in America, As 

may be seen from the foregoing sections the Lutheran 
Church in America is grouped into four general bodies 
and a number of independent synods. These are the fol- 
lowing: 1) The General Synod, organized in 1821, con- 
sisting of 25 synods, and numbering some over 1,300 
ministers, 1,700 congregations, and 240,000 communi- 
cant members. 2) The General Council, organized in 
1867, consisting of 12 synods, and numbering nearly 
1,500 ministers, 2,300 congregations, and over 400,000 
communicant members. 3) The Synodical Conference, 
organized in 1872, consisting of 6 synods, and number- 
ing over 2,300 ministers, nearly 4,000 congregations, 
and over 600,000 communicant members. 4) The 
United Synod, South, organized 1886, consisting of 8 
synods, and numbering 230 ministers, 450 congrega- 



336 THE MODERN ERA 

tions, and about 48.000 communicant members. 5) The 
Independent Synods are 15 in all. They number some 
over 2,400 ministers, about 5,300 congregations, and 
about 600,000 communicant members. The most im- 
portant of these synods are, the Joint Synod of Ohio 
(English and German), the Iowa Synod (German), the 
four Norwegian synods, the two Danish synods, the 
Icelandic, and the Finnish. 6) There are also 83 minis- 
ters, 200 congregations, with 25,000 communicant 
members that do not sustain any synodical connection. 
The grand totals of the whole Church is 66 synods, 
9,000 ministers, nearly 14,000 congregations, and 
about 1,900,000 communicant members. 

These synods and congregations support 24 theolog- 
ical seminaries, 41 colleges, 38 academies, 10 ladies' 
seminaries and colleges, 48 orphans' homes, 25 hospi- 
tals, 21 homes for aged, asylums, etc., 8 deaconess insti- 
tutions, 13 immigrant homes and seamen's missions, 
and 100 foreign missionaries with 900 native helpers. 

While the Lutheran Church was one of the four Prot- 
estant Churches first planted in America and ranks to- 
day numerically third among the Protestant Churches, 
it has not received the recognition to which its age and 
strength would entitle it. There are various reasons for 
this. First the Lutheran Church has never meddled in the 
affairs of State. It is not dependent upon any particular 
form of government. It thrives as well under a mon- 
archy as a republic, and can adapt itself to an episco- 
pal, presbyterian, or congregational form of Church 
government. Its influence has been powerful, but it has 
been of a deep and quiet nature and has not appeared 
on the surface. Again, until recently the work of the 
Church has been conducted mainly in foreign tongues, 
principally German, Swedish, and Norwegian. It has, 



THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA 337 

therefore, been undervalued and often been misunder- 
stood, especially by the ignorant and the vulgar. But 
all that belongs to the past. People are beginning to 
learn that the Lutheran Church instead of being related 
to Catholicism is the Mother-Church of the Reformation 
and the backbone of Protestantism. 

The first exclusively English Lutheran Church in 
America. St. John's, Philadelphia, was organized in 
1806. The progress of the English work was, however, 
very slow at first, and this must necessarily be the ex- 
perience of every synod using a foreign tongue. People 
naturally cling tenaciously to the mother-tongue espe- 
cially in church matters, as it remains the language of 
the heart and of devotion. Furthermore there was no 
Lutheran literature in English— no catechisms, no text- 
books, no hymnals, no devotional works. All this had 
to be created either by making translations or produc- 
ing original works. And this took time. But thanks 
to the devoted labors of pious and able men, we have 
to-day a rich Lutheran doctrinal and devotional litera- 
ture in English. 

During the last generation the English work has pro- 
gressed very rapidly. More than one-third of the con- 
gregations now use the English language exclusively. 
The language question still remains one of the most im- 
portant problems before the Lutheran Church in Amer- 
ica. How to meet the wants of the thousands of immi- 
grants who come from Lutheran homes to our shores 
every year as well as the hundreds of thousands of others 
to whom the foreign tongue is still the language of de- 
votion, and at the same time not neglect the needs of 
those whose mother-tongue is now the English, when as 
often happens these elements are all found in the same 

22 



338 THE MODERN ERA 

congregation, is a question of surpassing difficulty and 
requires the greatest wisdom, work, and sacrifice. 

Another important question before the Lutheran 
Church in this country is that of unification, not by 
consolidation, but by federation on the basis of the 
Unaltered Augsburg Confession. 



I. THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL. 

129. The Propagation of the Gospel throngh Colonization. 

The Church has extended her territories in modern 
times by two methods, by the colonization of new coun- 
tries and by mission work among heathen nations. By 
the first method Christianity has been extended over 
America, a large part of Australia, and certain parts of 
Africa and Asia. While this process has greatly in- 
creased the territory of the Church, it has not been very 
successful in converting the native population. In the 
temperate parts of North America it has largely resulted 
in the expulsion or extermination of the natives. The 
same fate seems to await the natives of Australia. In 
Asia the native population is too large and too import- 
ant to be expelled or exterminated. Except through- 
out the immense wastes of Siberia, there is little room 
for colonization. The second method, that of Christian 
missions, will have to be employed there to win the 
countries for Christ. The colonization of Africa, except 
the extreme southern portion, is of recent date. Per- 
haps the tropical climate of the central region will be 
the strong ally of the native population. This exter- 
mination process has not been one of design, for earnest 
efforts have been made to civilize and Christianize the 
natives, especially in the United States. It seems rather 



THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL 339 

to be the inevitable effect upon a weak and savage or 
barbarous people coming in contact with a numerous, 
strong, and aggressive people of a high culture. 

130. Mission Work among Heathen nations. From the 
opening of modern history to the present day the 
Roman Catholic Church has labored zealously and not 
without success to convert and to add to her fold 
heathen and Mohammedan peoples. At present her 
missions extend to nearly every portion of the known 
world. The central agency for this great work is the 
Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (congre- 
gatio de Propaganda Fide), or the Propaganda, as it is 
usually called, organized in 1622 with the Pope as the 
chief leader. 

The Protestant Churches needed to be thoroughly 
established and built up within before they could success- 
fully carry on any work without. Mission work among 
the Lapps was begun by Sweden in 1559; theDutch sent 
missionaries to Ceylon as early as 1636; the city of Lii- 
beck sent out Peter Heyling as a missionary to Abys- 
sinia in 1634; efforts were also made by Eliot and Cam- 
panius to convert the American Indians. This consti- 
tutes about all the Protestant mission work among 
heathen nations during the 16th and 17th centuries. At 
the opening of the 18th century a more general interest 
in foreign missions was awakened in the Protestant 
Church. The English Society for the Propagation of 
the Gospel was founded in 1701, but it was intended for 
the especial benefit of the American Colonies. The first 
real missionary enterprise was started by the king of 
Denmark, Frederick IV., in 1702, in Tranquebar, in his 
possessions on the southeast coast of India. He applied 
to August Herman Francke at Halle for missionaries. 



340 



THE MODERN ERA 



Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plutschau were 
selected. Ziegenbalg translated the Bible into the Tamil 
language and laid a firm foundation for the work. This 
was the first Protestant mission in India. It was re- 
enforced from time to time by earnest and able mission- 
aries from the same great center of missionary enter 




Bartholomew Ziegenbalg. 



prises, the Franckean Institution at Halle. Gotthelf 
August Francke had intended Muhlenberg for this mis- 
sion, but as he was sent to America Christian Frederick 
Schwartz was selected instead. He was sent toTranque- 
bar in 1750. He extended his labors also to Ceylon, 
Trichinopoly, and Tanjore. He met with remarkable 



THE HROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL 341 

; and prepared the wa} r for the successful evan- 
gelization of India" in the future. He has been called 
the Patriarch of Lutheran Missions and is one of the 
greatest missionaries of all times. 

In 1721, Hans Egede, a young Norwegian pastor, 
burning with desire to carry the Gospel to the inhabi- 
tants of Greenland, who, as was then generally sup- 
posed, were the descendants of the ancient Northmen, 
sailed from Norway, and with his wife and children 
landed upon that uninviting coast. He soon learned 
that the Eskimos were a distinct people and no de- 
scendants of Northmen. But his zeal for the work was 
not lessened on that account. The greatest difficulty 
was the language, but with the help of his children, who 
learned it readily from the Eskimo children, he soon 
acquired such knowledge of it as to be able to converse 
with them and to give them a written language and 
prepare for them a short synopsis of the Christian re- 
ligion. By his kindness, his love and devotion he won 
the hearts of the natives and they revered him as a 
father. After many years of untold labors, hardships, 
and privations, his faithful wife sank beneath the bur. 
den and died. His own strength was failing and he 
needed rest. He returned home, i. e. to Copenhagen, 
where he became the teacher and head of a seminary for 
the training of Greenland missionaries. His son Paul 
succeeded him in the work on the field. As a result of 
this mission Greenland is to-day a Christian land. 

At the close of the 18th century and the opening of 
the 19th the modern missionary societies began to be 
organized and throughout the whole of the last century 
such societies continued to be organized and churches 
and synods in all Christian lands engaged in the great 
work, so that the 19th century became the great 



342 THE MODERN ERA 

missionary century of history, and the time is fast ap- 
proaching when the Gospel shall have been "published 
among all nations." 

Two missionary bodies still existing belong to an 
earlier date. They are the English Society for the Prop- 
agation of the Gospel, already referred to, and the 
Moravian Brotherhood, which may be regarded as a 
missionary society. The former, organized in 1701, is 
now carrying on missionary work in India, China, 
Japan, and Malay, the latter has perhaps been the most 
active of all missionary bodies. It is now conducting 
work in Africa, India, Australia, South America, the 
West Indies, Alaska, and Labrador. 

Of the societies of a later origin the Baptist Mission- 
ary Society (English) comes first. It was organized in 
1792. Its first missionary was the great oriental 
scholar, William Carey. He was sent to India in 1793 
and for over forty years labored in the Presidency of 
Calcutta as missionary, teacher, and student of oriental 
languages. The London Missionary Society (Noncor- 
formist) followed in 1795. Its first noted missionaries 
were Robert Morrison, the first Protestant missionary 
to China, sent to Canton in 1807; John Williams, sent 
to the South Sea Islands in 1816; and Robert Moffat, 
the great missionary pioneer in South Africa. His son- 
in-law, David Livingstone, the great African missionary 
and explorer, also entered the service of this society. 

The first American society was the "American Board" 
(Congregationalist) organized in 1810. It was followed 
by the Baptist Missionary Union in 1814. Then came 
the Methodist Episcopal in 1 832, Protestant Episcopal 
in 1835, Lutheran (Ministerium of Pennsylvania) 1836, 
Butch Reformed in 1836, Presbyterian 1837, Lutheran 
(General Synod) 1837. 



THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL 343 

These societies and organizations have multiplied until there are 
to-day over 60 American and some over 70 European societies. Of 
these about one-third belong to the Lutheran Church. The most 
prominent of which are : "The Berlin Missionary Society' ' (1824) 
with missions in Africa and China; 2) "The Leipzig Society' ' 
(1836) with missions in India and Africa ; 2) "The Gossner Society'' 
(1836) with missions in India; 4) "The Hermannsburg Missionary 
Society" (1849, by Louis Harms) with missions in India, Africa, 
New Zealand, and Persia; 5) "The Swedish Missionary Society" 
(Svenska missionssallskapet, 1835) with orphan homes and schools 
in Lapland; 6) "The Evangelical Fatherland Association" (Evan- 
geliska Fosterlandsstiftelsen, 1856) with missions in East Africa 
and Central India; 7) "The Swedish Church Missionary Society" 
(1868) with missions in South Africa and India; 8) "The Danish 
Missionary Society' ' (1821) with missions in China and among the 
Tamils in India; 9) "The Norwegian Missionary Society" (1842) 
with missions in South Africa and Madagascar; 10) "The Finnish 
Missionary Society" (1859) with missions in Africa and China; 11) 
"The Dutch Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society" (1882) with 
missions in the Dutch East Indies; 12) "The India Home Missions 
to the Santals" (1867, by Bcerresen and Skrefsrud) supported 
mainly by Scandinavians in Europe and America. 

The Church of Sweden labors among the Zulus in 
South Africa and also among the Tamils of India. The 
latter field is now worked in connection with the Lu- 
theran Church in Germany. The work is a continuation 
of the Danish mission at Tranquebar begun by Ziegen- 
balg. For Sweden the work was first carried on by the 
Swedish Missionary Society (Svenska missionssallska- 
pet), but it has now turned the field over to the Swedish 
Church and at present it only maintains orphan homes 
and schools in Lapland. The Evangelical Fatherland 
Association (Evangeliska Fosterlandsstiftelsen) labors 
in Northern Abyssinia, aiming at reaching the Galla 
people in the West. It also carries on missions in three 
districts in Central India. 'And finally the Swedish 
Mission Covenant supports missions in the Congo Free 



344 



THE MODERN ERA 



State and other places. Among the more prominent 
Swedish missionaries we may mention the gifted and 




zealous Dr. P. Fjellstedt, who after successful labors 
among heathen peoples devoted himself to the equally 



THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL 345 

important work of arousing and maintaining mission- 
ary interest at home; and secondly the learned and 
devoted A. Blomstrand, who employed his rich gifts and 
powers among the Tamils of India. 

The first efforts of the Lutherans in America were 
necessarily directed towards home missions. As soon 
as the General Synod had been organized the question 
of foreign missions began to be seriously considered, 
and a foreign missionary society was formed in 1837. In 
the meantime the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, which 
had withdrawn from the General Synod, had organized 
a missionary society the previous year. In 1839 the 
Rev. C. F. Heyer, afterwards reverently called Father 
Heyer, was called by the General Synod as missionary 
to India. He accepted the call, but learning that he 
was to be placed under the care of the American Board 
(Congregationalist) he reconsidered the matter and de- 
clined the call. He then offered his services to the 
Ministerium of Pennsylvania. After much hesitation he 
was sent by the latter body, and arrived in Guntur, 
India, in 1842. In the meantime the General Synod re- 
considered its proposed connection w T ith the American 
Board, and in 1843 called the Rev. Walter Gunn as mis- 
sionary to the same field. The two societies worked 
harmoniously together and when the Ministerium of 
Pennsylvania reunited with the General Synod, the 
latter body assumed the sole direction of the mission. 
After the organization of the General Council, a part of 
this mission field was transferred to it, in 1869. Besides 
this mission among the Telugus, the General Council 
supports a mission in Porto Rico, and the General Synod 
one in Liberia on the west coast of Africa. 

Other American Lutheran societies and enterprises 
are of a later date. In 1892 the United Synod of the 



346 THE MODERN ERA 

South began its mission work in Japan. The various 
Norwegian synods conduct missions in South Africa, 
Madagascar, India, China, and Japan. The Danes 
labor in Japan and among the American Indians. The 
Synodical Conference and the Missouri Synod carry on 
extensive missionary work among the negro population 
in various states and among the Tamils in India and 
the North American Indians. Some Synods carry on 
their foreign mission work in connection with other 
bodies, American or European. 

131. Missions to Jews. Earnest efforts are also being 
made for the conversion of the Jews. In Great Britain 
and Continental Europe many societies have been or- 
ganized for this special purpose. The work is carried 
on among them in nearly every country in Europe, in 
Egypt, Turkey, Palestine, Persia, and other countries. 
Comparatively little of this work is done in the United 
States. Lutheran societies for prosecuting Jewish mis- 
sions are found in Germany (Berlin, Dresden, Bavaria, 
Wurtemberg, etc), Sweden (Stockholm), Denmark, Nor- 
way, France, Russia, and the United States (Norwegian 
Zion Society; Missouri Synod, New York; German Iowa 
Synod; Chicago). 

132. A Retrospect of the Modern Era. Two fountains 
countributed towards refreshing and purifying Christian culture 
at the opening of the Modern Age. They were the classical liter- 
atures and the Bible. The Reformation appropriated both of them 
and loosed the bonds which had fettered both religious and scientific 
thought during the Middle Ages. The Roman Church on the other 
hand clung tenaciously to the old traditions and consented to the 
removal of the worst abuses simply to establish herself all the more 
firmly upon her false foundation. Hence, the reformers were com- 
pelled to tear themselves loose from the papacy and to form new 
organizations. But even among those who desired a reformation 
of the Church on a scriptural basis divisions arose, as some sought 



A RETROSPECT OF THE MODERN ERA 347 

to appopriate all that was good and true in the historical develop- 
ment of the Church, while others would ignore this development 
and begin at the beginning; some sought to establish a complete 
and symmetrical Christianity, while others were inclined toward a 
rationalistic or mystical one-sidedness; some desired a closer union 
among all like believers and a fixed church order, others laid undue 
stress upon individual liberty. In this way there arose the two 
principal Protestant Churches, and within them and beside them a 
multitude of sects. Between these Churches and sects many 
mutual influences and conflicts arose, all of which render Church 
history of the Modern Age far more difficult to comprehend than 
that of the Middle Ages. 

The first problem of the different Churches after the Reforma- 
tion was to define their fundamental principles and in accordance 
with them to present symbolically their doctrines and to regulate 
their constitutions and cult. This required the greater part of the 
16th century. Then followed a period during which efforts were 
made to secure complete dominion in life and doctrine to the rec- 
ognized orthodox faith. In the Protestant Churches this work was 
carried out by the orthodox schools, in the Catholic Church it was 
done principally by the Jesuits. Orthodoxy often led to a dead faith 
and an empty formalism; the Jesuits consistently enough developed 
a blind submission to the authority of the Church and an empty 
observance of certain outward practices. Against both of them 
certain movements were started, demanding greater personal piety: 
Pietists, Herrnhuters, Methodists, Jansenists. They were able, 
however, to secure only a partial following. Tne great mass of 
the educated classes exchanged the authority of the Bible, the 
Church, and Confessions for that of Reason; they exchanged the 
dead faith for no faith. Thus Rationalism arose. But this super- 
ficial intellectualism could not, in the long run, satisfy either the 
religious wants nor deeper and sounder reflection. Then came the 
19th century with a greater scientific depth, a more biblical and 
confessional theology, and a greater religious vitality. But in the 
meantime infidelity has secured new weapons and is gaining ground 
even among the lower classes. It is now a more dangerous enemy 
to the Church than ever. 

At first the various Churches were in arms against one another, 
and the 16th and 17th centuries were a period of religious in- 
tolerance. This gave way to the religious indifference of the 18th 
century. The 19th century brought a confessional revival and a 



348 THE MODERN ERA 

return of church polemics, but the contests were now fought out 
with greater moderation, and religious liberty was established in 
most of the Christian countries. The Roman Catholic Church, how- 
ever, seems to have accepted this condition only as a matter of 
necessity. 

The moral condition has risen and fallen with the interest in 
religion. During the period of Rationalism morality declined. In 
our day Materialism is undermining morality as well as law and 
order in all departments. 

During the Modern Era the State has struggled to gain control 
of the Church. This was especially the case in the 18th century, 
during the period of the so-called Enlightened Despots. During 
the 19th century the various Churches have aimed at attaining 
greater independence. Among Protestant Churches the aim is to 
secure the mutual independence of Church and State, that each may 
freely work out its own problems and attain its destined end and 
purpose. The Roman Catholic Church still aims at securing control 
of the State. 

In the 16th and 17th centuries scientific investigation was sub- 
ject to the direction of the Church. During the 18th century it 
emancipated itself from the Church and assumed a hostile attitude 
toward Christianity. Even in this respect the 19th century has 
brought better conditions. The Church recognizes the right of in- 
dependent research, while earnest scientific thinkers admit that 
religion alone can satisfy the deepest cravings of the soul and that 
there is an infinite realm into which human thought can not pene- 
trate. But on the other hand there are many who desire a culture 
without Christianity and look for a time of complete religious 
emancipation. 

More than ever before the Church is now called upon to work. 
She must fight indifference and skepticism from within and build 
herself up upon the true foundation. From without the Lord has 
opened the door to the heathen world, which is a challenge to the 
Church to be up and to work and gather in the rich harvests. For 
both of these duties she hath need of putting on the whole armor of 
God, that she may be able to withstand in the evil day, and having 
done all. to stand. 



INDEX. 



Abbreviations. — K.=king; Q.=queen; Emp.=emperor; Bp.= 
bishop; Abp. =archbishop. 



Abelard, Peter, 141, 146 

Absolution, 124 

Abu Bekr, 92 

Abyssinia, 86 

iEdesius, 86 

Adiaphoristic controversy, 232, 

272 
Agricola, John, 193 
Agrippa, Herod. 5, 6 
Aibigenses, the, 147 
Alexander VI. , Pope, 116 
Alexander Severus, Emp., 13 
Alexandria, School of, 34, 66, 67 
Alvastra, Monastery of, 131, 135 
Ambrose, Bp. of Milan, 51, 67— 

69 
American Baptist Missionary 

Union, 342 
American Board, 342 
American Episcopal Church, 309 
American Lutheran Church, 311 
Amsdorf , 230, 231 
Anabaptists, 183, 185, 205 
Andover, first Swedish Church 

at, 323 
Andover Theol. Seminary, 310 
Andreen, A., 326 
Andreen, G. A., 332 
Andren, O. C. T., 326 
Anglo-Saxons, 85 
Andreae, Laurentius, 220, 222 
Anselm, St., 41 
Ansgar, St. , 94 seq. 
Anthony, St., 60 
Anthusa, mother of Chrysostom, 

69 
Antioch, first church at, 6; school 

of, 66, 67 
Antoninus Pius, 11 
Apologists, 32 
Apology, the, 195 
Apostles' Creed, 19 



Apostolic Fathers, 32 
Aquinas, Thomas, 142 
Arianism, 72 
Arius, 72 
Arminius, 263 

Arnauld, Angelica, 289, 292 
Arnauld, Antoine, 289, 292 
Arndt, John, 237 
Asbury, Francis, 305 
Asia Minor, School of, 34 
Asylum, right of, 47 
Athanasius, 66, 73-75 
Augsburg Confession, 176, 194, 

233 
Augsburg Confession, Altered, 

233 
Augsburg, Diet of, 194 
Augsburg Interim, 232 
Augsburg, Peace of, 197, 232 
Augustana, 335 
Augustana Book Concern, 335 
Augustana College, 331 
Augustana Synod, 323 
Augustine, Church Father, 78, 

80-83, 232, 289 
Augustine, Missionary to the 

Anglo-Saxons, 50 
Augustinian Order, 133 
Aurelius, Marcus, Emp., 11 
Auren, Jonas, 314 
Auto da fe, 127 
Ave Maria 120, 121 
Avignon, papal see at, 114 

Babylonian Captivity of the 

Popes, 114 
Baltimore, See of, 303 
Baptism, of infants, 19, 183; of 

adults, 19; preparation for, 19; 

early customs regarding, 19,20 
Baptist Missionary Society, 342 
Baptists, 274; in America, 306 



350 



INDEX 



Bartholomew's Day, Massacre 
of, 264 

Basel, Council of, 115, 151 

Basil, Bp. of Cassarea, 67 

Basilica, the, 53—56 

Beckman, P., 326 

Benedict of Nursia, 61—65 

Benedictine Order, 61 

Bengel, J. A., 253 

Berkenmeier, W. C, 315 

Bernard of Clairvaux, 119, 131, 
143 

Bethany College, 334 _ 

Bible, translation of, in German, 
179, 182; in Swedish, 220, 257 

Bishops, the early use of the 
term, 16; territory of, 16; du- 
ties of, 16, 17 

Bjork, Erik, 314 

Bjorn, early K. of Sweden, 94 

Black Friars, 133 

Blotsven, K. of Sweden, 96 

Bockhold, John, 185 

Boehme, Jacob, 241 

Bohemian Brethren, 152 

Bonaventura, 143 

Boniface (Winfrid), 93, 105 

Boniface VIII., 113 

Bolzius, John Martin, 315 

Boreen, P. J. C, 326 

Borgia, Francis, 216 

Bourbons, 263 

Brask, Bp. of Linkoping, 225 

Brethren of the Common Life, 
157, 262 

Bridget (Birgitta), St., 131, 134 

Bring, J. C, 261 

Brunnholz, Rev., 317 

Bugenhagen, 187, 219 

Caaba, Mohammedan shrine, 92 
Cajetan, Cardinal, 171 
California Conference, the, 331 
Calixtines, the, 152 
Calixtus, George, 242 
Calvin, John, 206, 208 seq. 
Campanius, John, 312 
Campbell, Alexander, 309 
Campbellites, the, 309 
Canon, origin of N. T., 31 
Canossa, scene at, 112 seq. 



Canterbury, See of, 85 

Canute the Great, 96 

Capital University, 318 

Cardinals, College of, 107; elec- 
tion of Popes by, 107 

Carey, William, 342 

Carlson, P., 326 

Carlsson, Erland, 325, 331 

Carlstadt, 167, 171, 182 

Carroll, John, 303 

Carthage, Synod of, 31 

Catacombs, the, 23—25 

Catechumenate, the, 56—58 
i Catechumens, instructions of, 19; 
worship of, 20 

Cathari, the, 147 

Cathedral schools, 104; chapters, 
104 

Catharine von Bora, 191 

Catholic Apostolic Church, the, 
287 

Catholic Church in America, 
303 

Cederstam, P. A., 326 

Celibacy, rise of, 107; attempts 
to enforce, 107 

Celtic Church, the, 85 

Cervin, A. R., 326 

Chalcedon, Council of, 73, 77 

Chalmers, Thomas, 271 

Charlemagne, converts the Sax- 
ons, 93; crowned Emperor, 105; 
educational work of, 106 

Charles I., K. of England, 298 

Charles V., Emp., 262 

Charles IX., K. of Sweden, 221 

Charles XL, K. of Sweden, 239, 
313 

Charles XII., K. of Sweden, 239, 
250 
i Charles Martel, 91 

Christian II., K. of Denmark, 
219 

Christian III., K. of Denmark, 
219 

Christina, Q. of Sweden, 312 

Christina, settlement of, 312 

Christmas, 52 

Chrodegang, 103 

Chrysostom, John, 62—72 



INDEX 



351 



Church, the founding of, 4; offi- 
cers of , 15—19; early organiza- 
tion of, 16—19; festivals of, 
22, 52; discipline, 28; fathers, 
32; privilege of asylum, 47; 
architecture, 53, 121; music, 51; 
art, 121; bans of, 125 

Cistercian Order, 131, 144, 146 

Clausen, C. L,, 322 

Clement V., Pope, 114 

Clugny, congregation of, 131 

Codex Argenteus, 85 

Codex Alexandrinus, 298 

Coke, Thomas, 305 

Coligny, Admiral, 301 

Collin, N., 314 

Columba, St., 86 

Columbia Conference, the, 331 

Concord, Book of, 234 

Concord, Formula of, 234 

Concordat of Worms, 109 

Congregation of the Propaganda, 
339 

Congregationalists, 268; in Amer- 
ica, 310 

Conrad of Marburg, 129 

Constance, Council of, 115, 151 

Constantine the Great, 14 

Constantinople, founding of, 91; 
council of 73, 75 

Constantius Chlorus, 14 

Constitution of the U. S., 302 

Cotta, Ursula, 165 

Counter-Reformation, the, 212 

Courland, 99 

Conventicle Act, in Sweden, 250 

Cornelius, baptism of, 5 

Corpus Christi Festival, 117 

Cranmer, Thomas, 267 

Cromwell, Oliver, 268 

Crusades, the, 132 

Crypto-Calvinistic controversy, 
233 

Crypts, 24 

Cumberland Presbyterians, 308 

Cyprian, 34, 38 

Cyrillus, 99 

D'Alembert, 251 
Danish-Halle Mission, 339 
Danish Lutherans in America, 322 



Darby, J. N., 287 

Darbyites, the, 287 

Deacons, function of, 16 

Deaconess, duties of, 16 

Deaconesss Institutions, 334, 336 

Decius, Emp., 10, 13, 15 

"Defender of the Faith", 267 

Deindoerfer, John, 321 

Deism, 250 

Denmark, Reformation in, 219 

Diderot, 251 

Diocletian, Emp., 10, 14 

Disciples of Christ, the, 309 

Dissenter Act, in Sweden, 258 

Docetism, 42 

Dominic, St., 132 

Dominicans, the, mendicant or- 
der, 132 

Donatism, 29 

Donatus, 30 

Dort, Synod of, 263, 311 

Dragonnades, the, 265 

Dutch Lutherans in America, 311 

Dutch Lutheran Missionary So- 
ciety, 343 

Dynamism, 45 

Easter, early observance of, 22: 
time of, 23 

Ebionites, the, 40 

Ecclesiastical Courts, 47 

Ecclesiastical Reservation, 197, 
198 

Eck, John, 168, 171 

Eckhart, Master, 143 

Edward VI., K. of England, 267 

Egede, Hans, 341 

Egede. Paul, 341 

Eliot, John, 339 

Elizabeth, Q. of England, 267 

Elizabeth of Thuringia, 128 seq. 

Embury, Philip, 304 

Encyclopedists, the, 251 

England, Reformation in, 267 

English Lutheran Church, first 
in America, 337 

Ephesus, Council of, 76 

Epiphany, Festival of, 62 

Episcopal Church, 268; in Amer- 
ica, 309 

Erasmus, 158 



352 



INDEX 



Erik, the Saint, 96 

Erik XIV., K. of Sweden, 221, 
229 

Esbjorn, Lars Paul, 323, 326, 332 

Eskimos, the, 341 

Esthonia, 99 

Eudoxia, Empress, 71 

Eusebius, the historian, 66 

Eutyches, 76 

Evangelical Alliance, the, 271 

Evangelical Church of Prussia, 
the, 272 

Evangelical Fatherland Associa- 
tion, the, 258, 343 

' 'Evangeliska Fosterlandsstif tel- 
sen", 258, 343 

Exarchate of Ravenna, the, 105 

Exorcism, 19 

Falckner, Justus, 314 

False Decretals, the, 101, 230 

Farel, William, 209 

Fathers, Apostolic, 32; Church, 32 

Felicitas, 12 

Fenelon, 291 

Finnish Lutherans in America, 323 

Fjellstedt, P., 261, 330 

Flacius Illyricus, 230, 231, 233 

Flagellants, the, 130 

Fox, George, 275 

Francis of Assisi, 133, 137 

Franciscans, the, 132 

Francke, August Herman, 243, 

244 
Francke, Gotthelf August, 316, 

340 
Franckean Institutions, 244 
Franks, the, 84 
Franzen, F. M., 261 
Fratres Majores, 139 
Fratres Minores, 139 
Frederick L, K. of Denmark, 219 
Frederick III. of the Palatinate, 

235 
Frederick IV., K. of Denmark, 

339 
Frederick IV. of the Palatinate, 

235 
Frederick the Wise, Elector, 178, 

186 
Free Church of Scotland, 271 



Friends, Society of, 275 
Frisians, 93 

Fritschel, Gottfried, 321 
Fritschel, Sigmund, 321 
Frumentius, 86 
Fry, Elizabeth, 276 

Galerius, Emp., 14 

Galesburg, first Lutheran church 

in, 323 
Galle, Peder, 226 
Gallienus, Emp., 14, 15 
General Council, the, 320, 326 
General Synod, the, 318. 326, 342 
General Synod South, 318 
Geneva, Church of, 207, 210 
George, Duke of Saxony, 172 
Gerhard, John, 236 
Gerhardt, Paul, 237 
German Lutherans in America, 

314, 320 
Gerson, John, 114 
Gettysburg Theological Semina- 
ry, 318 
Gloria Dei Church, 314 
Gnosticism, 41—43 
Goetwater, John Ernest, 312 
Gossner Society, the, 343 
Goths, converion of, 83 
Grabau, J. A. A., 320 
Greek Church, the, 102, 296 
Greenland Mission, 341 
Gregory of Nazianzus, 67 
Gregory of Nyazza, 67 
Gregory I. , the Great, 48—51 
Gregory VII, Hildebrand, 106 
Gronau, Israel Christian, 315 
Gudmarsson, Wulf, 135 
Guises, the, 264 
Gunn, Walter, 345 
Gustavus Adolphus, 222 
Gustavus Adolphus College, 333 
Gustavus Vasa, 220, 229 

Hadrian, Emp., 11 

Halle, Institutions at, 248, 249 

Handschuh, John Frederick, 317 

Hardenberg, 254 

Harms, Claus, 256 

Hartwig, John Christopher, 317 

Harvard University, 310 



INDEX 



353 



Hasselquist, T. N., 325, 327, 331, 
332 

Hauge Synod, 322 

Hegel, 254 

Hegira, the, 91 

Heidelberg Catechism, 234 

Heloise, 146 

Hemlandet, 335 

Henry IV., Emp., 110 

Henry IV. of Navarre, 264 

Henry VIII., K. of England, 267 

Heraclius, Emp., 77 

Herbert, Lord, of Cherbury, 251 

Hermannsburg Missionary Socie- 
ty, 343 

Hermits, the, 60 

Herod Agrippa, 5, 6 

Herrnhuters, the, 276 

Heyer, C. F., 345 

Heyling, Peter, 339 

High-Churchmen, the, 269 

Hildebrand, Gregory VII., 106 

Hippo Regius, Synod of, 31 

Hohenstaufens, the, 109 

Holy Synod, the, 300 

Hokanson, M. F., 326 

Hospitallers, the, 132 

Hospitals, of Augustana Synod, 
334; of the American Lutheran 
Church, 336 

Hughes, John, 304 

Huguenots, the, 263 

Humanism, origin of, 157; pre- 
pares the way for the Reforma- 
tion, 158 

Hungary, 99 

Huns, the, 84 

Huss, John, 150, 151, 152, 172, 179 

Iceland, the Reformation in, 219 
Icelandic Lutheran Church in 

America, 323 
Ignatius of Antioch, 11 
Illinois Conference, the, 327, 330 
Illumination, the period of, 250 
Image Worship, 120 
Immanuel Deaconess Institute, 

334 
Independents, the, 268 
India Home Mission to the San- 

tals, 343 



Indulgences, origin of, 124, 125; 

sale of by Tetzel, 167, 168 
Inge the Elder, K. of Sweden, 96 
Innocent III., Pope, 109, 147 
Inquisition, the, origin of, 126; 

Spanish, 127 
Interdict, the, 126 
Investiture, law of, 108; contest, 

109 
Iona, Monastery of, 85 
Iowa Conference, the, 331 
Iowa Synod (German), the, 330, 

336 
Irenseus, 34 
Irving, Edward, 287 
Irvingites, the, 287 
Isidore of Seville, 102 
Islam, 92 

Jacob el Baradai, 77 

Jacobites, the, 77 

Jacqueline Pascal, 292, 294 

James the Elder, 5 

James the Just, 5 

James II., K. of England, 269 

Jansenists, the, 267, 289 

Jansenius, 289 

Jerome, translator of the Vul- 
gate, 66 

Jerome of Prague, 150, 151, 154 

Jerusalem, conference at, 6; fall 
of, 5; patriarchate of, 47 

Jesuits, the Order of, origin of, 
213, 214; organization of, sys- 
tem of education of, 216; rela- 
tion to Jansenism, 289; dissolu- 
tion of, 290; sophistries of, 
293; restoration of 295; in 
America, 301 

Jewish missions, 346 

Johannelund Institute, 344 

John the Apostle, 7, 8 

John Frederick, 177, 195, 197 

John of Leyden, 185 

John the Steadfast, 186, 195 

John III., K. of Sweden, 221 

Joint Synod of Ohio, the, 317, S36 

Joseph II., Emp., 294 

Judaizing Christians, 6 

Julian the Apostate, 46 

Justin Martyr, 12, 32 

23 



354 



INDEX 



Kansas Conference, the, 331 
Kant, Immanuel, 252 
Kappel, battle of, 201, 205 
Kempis, Thomas, 143 
Knights of St. John, 132 
Knights Templars, 132 
Knights, Teutonic, 132 
Knipper dolling, 186 
Knoll, Michael Christian, 315 
Knox, John, 270 
Kocherthal, Joshua, 315 
Koran, the, 92 
Krauth, C. P., 320 
Kurtz, John Nicholas, 317 
Kyrie Eleison, 119 

Laines, Jacob, 216 

Laodicaea, Synod of, 31 

"Laseri" in Sweden, 250 

Lateran, Fourth Synod, 104, 110 

Latter Day Saints, the, 288 

Leipzig Disputation, the, 168 

Leipzig Interim, the, 232 

Leipzig Missionary Society, 343 

Lent, early observance of, 23 

Leo L, Pope, 48, 77 

Leo IX., Pope, 102, 106 

LeoX., Pope, 168, 170 

Libeliatici, the, 39 

Libertines, the, 206, 210 

Licinius, Emp., 14 

Lind, Jenny, 324 

Lindahl, S. P. A., 331 

Lindblom's cathechism, 257 

Linderoth, Lars, 261 

Linkoping, Council of, 97 

Lithuania, 100 

Livingstone, David, 342 

Livonia, 99 

Lollards, the, 150 

Lombard, Peter, 142 

Lombards, the, 84, 105 

London Missionary Society, the, 
342 

Lord's Day, the early observance 
of, 22 

Lord's Supper, early celebration 
of, 21; regarded as a sacrifice, 
51; Luther and Zwingli on, 193, 
200, 233; Calvin's view on, 207 

Louis VI. of the Palatinate, 235 



Louis XIV., K. of France, 264 

Low-Churchmen, the, 269 

Loyola, Ignatius, 213 

Lucar, Cyril, 297, 298 

Lund, See of, 97; Cathedral of, 121 

Luther, Martin, birth and early 
life, 162, 164; student life, 162, 
165; religious experiences, 162, 
165; becomes a monk, 162, 165; 
ordained a priest, 166; profes- 
sor at Wittenberg, 162; visits 
Rome, 162, 166; made Doctor 
of Theology, 164, 167; nails up 
the 95 theses, 167, 169; at- 
tempted mediation, 171; dis- 
putation at Leipzig, 168; burns 
the papal bull, 168, 173; early 
writings, 172; friendship with 
Melanchthon, 176; at Worms, 
178, 179; at the Wartburg, 178; 
translates the Bible, 179, 182; 
puts down disturbances at Wit- 
tenberg, 183; marriage, 188, 
191; domestic life, 188; charac- 
ter 176, 189, 190; death, 177, 
197, 198 

Luther Academy, 334 

Lutheran Church, organization 
of, 187; territory of, 218; in 
Austrian lands, 218; in Prussia, 
218; in Poland, 218; in Den- 
mark, 219; in Sweden, 219; in 
Norway, 219; in Iceland, 219; 
in the Baltic Provinces, 218; 
in Italy and Spain, 219; in Bo- 
hemia and Moravia, 218; in 
America, 311, 335 

Madison, James, Bp. of Virginia, 

310 
"Magdeburg Centuries", the, 230 
Magnus Eriksson, K. of Sweden, 

135 
Major, George, 231 
Majorist Controversy, the, 231 
Makemie, Francis, 307 
Manichaeism, 40, 43, 44 
Manichaeus, or Mani, 43 
Mantua, meeting at, 196 
Marburg, conference at, 176, 200, 

205 



INDEX 



355 



Maronites, the, 77 

Mary the Bloody, Q. of England, 

267 
Maryland Synod, the, 317 
Mathilda, Countess of Tuscany, 

112 
Masses, relation to transubstan- 

tiation, 117; private, 117 
Matthias of Haarlem, 185 
Matthias of Strangnas, 225 
Matthise, Bp. of Strangnas, 242 
Maurice of Saxony, 197, 232 
Maxentius, Emp., 14 
Maximus, Emp., 14 
McCloskey, John, 304 
Mecca, 90 
Medici, the, 157 
Medina, 91 
Melanchthon, Philip, 172, 173, 194 

230, 232 
Mendicant Orders, 132 
Mennonites, the, 272 
Methodists, 278; in America, 304 
Methodius, 99 
Metropolitan, 16 
Michael Cerularius, 102 
Michigan Synod, the, 321 
Miltitz, Carl von, 171 
Minnesota College, 334 
Minnesota Conference, the, 327, 

330 
Minnesota Elementar Skola, 333 
Minnesota Synod, the, 321 
Ministerium of New York, the, 

317 
Ministerium of Pennsvlvania, 

the, 317, 318, 342 
Mission work among the heathen, 

339 
Missionary Societies, 341 
Mississippi Conference, the, 327 
Missouri Synod, the, 320 
Modalism, 45 
Moffat, Robert, 342 
Mohammed, 90-92 
Mohammedanism, 89—92 
Mogila of Kiev, 297 
Moline, first Lutheran Church in, 

323 
Monarchianism, 44 



Monasticism, 60 

Monastic vows, 60 

Monastic life, 131 

Monica, 80 

Monod, Frederick, 265 

Monophysites, the, 77 

Montanism, 29 

Montanus of Phrygia, 29 

Moravia, 99 

Moravian Brethren, 276, 278, 342 

Mormon, Book of, 288 

Mormons, the, 288 

Morrison, Robert, 342 

Muhlenberg, Henry Melchior, 

316, 340 
Miihlberg, battle of, 197 
Mii Her, Henry, 237 
Miinster, disturbances at, 185 
Mysticism, 142, 143, 238, 241 

Nantes, Edict of, 264; recova- 

tion of, 264 
Napoleon Bonaparte, 295 
National Assembly, the, 295 
National Convention, the, 295 
Nebraska Conference, the, 331 
Neo-Platonism, 41 
Nero, 9, 10 
Nestorianism, 76 
Nestorius, 76 

New Jerusalem Church, 287 
New Sweden, first Swedish Lu- 
theran Church at, 323 
New York Conference, the, 330 
New York Ministerium, the, 317 
Nicsea, Council of, 20; decree 
regarding baptism, 20; regard- 
ing time of easter, 23; regard- 
ing Arianism, 72 
Nicene Creed, the, 73 
Nicholas of Albano, 97 
Nicholas I., Pope, 102 
Nihilism, 270 

Nikon, Patriarch of Moscow, 3C0 
Norborg, Anders, 261 
Norelius, Eric, 326, 330, 331 
North Carolina Synod, the, 317 
Northern Illinois Synod, the, 324 

326 
Northmen, the, 94 
Northwestern College, 334 



356 



INDEX 



Norwegian Lutherans in Amer- 
ica, the, 321 
Norwegian Luth. Free Church, 

the, 322 
Norwegian Missionary Society. 

the, 343 
Norwegian Synod, the, 322 
Nuremberg, Peace of, 195 
Nydala, Monastery of, 131 

CEcolampadius, 199 
Ohio Synod, the, 317, 336 
Olaf Haraldsson, St. Olaf , 96 
Olaf Tryggvesson, 96 
Old Catholics, the, 296 
Old Swedes Church, the, 314 
Olof Lapking, 96 
Olsson, Olof, 326, 332 
Orange, Synod of, 80 
Origen, 34-36 
Osiander, 231 
Ostrogoths, the, 84 
Owen, Robert, 269 
Oxford, University of, 140 

Pachomius, 60 

Palatinate, devastation of, 315 

Pallium, the, 104 

Papacy, rise of, 100; relation to 
temporal power, 104; relation 
to the Emperors, 108; decline 
of, 113 

Papal States, the, 105, 296 

Paris, University of, 140 

Pascal, Blaise, 289, 291 

Passau, Peace of, 197 

Pater Noster, 120 

Patriarchates, the, 17, 47 

Patriarchs, the term, 17 

Patrick, St., 86 

Paul, the Apostle, 5, 6, 7, 10 

Paulicians, the, 147 

Peasants' War, the, 184 

Pelagian ism, 78 

Pelagius, 78 

Penance, origin of, 28; degrees 
of, 28; private, 57, 124; con- 
sisted of, 124 

Penn, William, 275 

Pennsylvania, Ministerium of, 
317, 318 



Pennsylvania Synod, the, 317, 218 
Pentecost, the day of, 4; the 

feast of, 22 
Perpetua, 12 
Persecutions, 9—14 
Persson, Birger, 135 
Peter, the Apostle, 4, 5, 7, 10 
Peter the Great, 299 
Petri, Laurentius, 220, 227 
Petri, Olaus, 219, 224 
Philip the Arabian, Emp., 13 
Philip II., K. of Spain, 262 
Philip the Fair of France, 113 
Philip the Magnanimous, 194, 

195, 197 
Philippists, the, 230 
Pietism, 242; in Sweden, 250 
Pippin le Bref, 105 
Pisa, Council of, 114 
Pius IX., Pope, 296 
Plenary Councils in Baltimore, 

303 
Pliny, the Younger, 11 
Pliitschau, Henry, 340 
Plymouth Brethren, the, 287 
Poland, 99; the Reformation in, 

218 
Polycarp, 12 

Poor Men of Lyons, the, 148 
Port Royal, convent of, 289, 294 
Prague, University of, 152 
Prayer Book of the English 

Church, 268 
Precursors of the Reformation, 

148 
Predestination, 207, 232 
Presbyter, 16 
Presbyterianism, in America, 

307; in Scotland, 207; in Swit- 
zerland, 207 
Principles of the Reformation, 

material, 164; formal, 168 
Propagation of the Gospel, by 

colonization, 338; by missions, 

339 
Protestants, the, origin of the 

term, 194 
Provincial Letters, the, 289, 293 
Prudentius, Spanish composer, 

51 



INDEX 



357 



Prussia, 100; Reformation in, 218 
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, the 

101, 230 
Puritans, the, 268 

Quakers, the, 275 
Quesnel, Paschasius, 290 

Racine, 292 

Radbertus, Paschasius, 116 

Rankin, Thomas, 305 

Raskolniki, the, 300 

Rationalism, 252 

"Ratta Hemlandet", 335 

Reformed Church, in England, 
267; in France, 263; in Ger- 
many, 272; in the Netherlands, 
262, in Scotland, 271 

Reuchlin, John, 158, 174 

Romantic School, the, 254 

Rosary, the, 121 

Rosenius, C. O., 258, 330 

Roskilde, Peace of, 258 

Rousseau, 251 

Rudbeckius, Johannes, 237 

Rudman, Anders, 314 

Russian Church, the, 299 

Rutstrom, A. C, 278 

Sacramental Controversy, the, 

200 
Saint Germain, Treaty of, 264 
Saint Worship, 52 
Salvation Army, the, 280 
Salzburgers, the, 315 
Satisfaction, 174 
Savonarola, Jerome, 156 
Schartau, Henry, 258 
Schism between the Greek and 

the Roman Church, 102 
Schismatic tendencies, 29 
Schlegel, 254 
Schleiermacher, 255 
Schmalkald Articles, the, 196 
Schmalkald, League of, 195, 196 
Schmalkaldic War, 196 
Scholasticism, 140, 141 
Schoolmen, the, 141 
Schwartz, Christian Frederick, 

340 
Schwenkfeld, Caspar, 241 
Scotists, the, 142, 289 



Scotus, John Duns, 142 

Scriver, Christian, 237 

Seabury, Samuel, 310 

Semi-Pelagianism, 80 

Septimius Severus, 12 

Servetus, Michael, 211 

Sigfrid, St., 96 

Sigismund, Emp., 151, 155 

Sigismund of Brandenburg, 272 

Sigismund III., K. of Poland, 
219, 222 

Simeon, Bp. of Jerusalem, 11 

Simeon the Stylite, 62 

Simony, 108 

Skaninge, Council of, 99 

Skrefsrud, L. O., 343 

Slavonians, the, 99 

Smith, Joseph, 288 

Socialism, 269 

Society for the Propagation of 
the Gospel, 339 

Socinians, the, 273 

Socinus, Faustus, 273 

Spangenberg, 277, 281 

Spegel, Haqvin, 237, 238 

Spener, Philip Jacob, 242 

Spires, First Diet of, 193; Sec- 
ond Diet of, 176, 194 

Stancarus, Francis, 231 

Staupitz, John, 166 

St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 
264 

Stenbock, Magnus, 239 

Stephen, the Martyr, 5 

Stephen, Abp. of Sweden, 98 

Strawbridge, Robert, 305 

Sunday School, first in America, 
306 

Supererogation, works of, 124 

Svebilius, Olof, 240 

Svedberg, Jesper, 237, 240, 285 

Sverker the Elder, K. of Sweden, 
146 

Sward, P. J., 331 

Swedenborg, Emanuel, 285 

Swedenborgians, the, 285 seq. 

Swedish Church Missionary So- 
ciety, 343 

Swedish Missionary Society, 343 

Swedish Mission Covenant, 343 



358 



INDEX 



Swensson, C. A., 334 
Swensson, Jonas, 326, 331 
Switzerland, Reformation in, 199, 

206 
Syncretism, 238, 242 

Tauler, John, 119, 143 
Templars, the Order of, 132 
Tennessee Synod, the, 317 
Terserus, Bp. of Abo, 242 
Tertullian, 34, 37 
Tetzel, John, 167, 168 
Teutonic Knights, 100, 132 
Theodoret, Bp. of Cyrus, 67 
Theodorus, Bp. of Mopsuestia, 67 
Theodosius the Great, 46, 68 
Theophilus, Bp. of Alexandria, 71 
Theosophy, 238, 241 
Thirty-Nine Articles, the, 268 
Thomists, the, 142. 289 
Toledo, Synod of, 84 
Torkillus, Reorus, 312 
Torquemada, 127 
Tours, battle of, 91 
Traducianism, 38 
Tranquebar, mission at, 339 
Transubstantiation, advanced by 
Radbertus, 116; sanctioned by 
the Lateran Synod, 117 
Trent, Council of, 196, 213, 289 
Trinity College, 334 
Truce of God, the, 123 

Ulfilas, 83 

Ultramontanists, 296 
Unitarians, the, 273, 310 
United Greeks, the, 297 
United Norwegian Luth. Church, 

the, 322 
United Presbyterian Church, the, 

308 
United Synod of the South, the, 

318 
Universities, rise of, 140 
Uppsala, See of, 98; Cathedral 

of, 121; University of, 140; 

Council of, 222 
Uppsala College, 334 
Utrecht, Union of, 262 



Vadstena, Monastery of, 131, 

137 
Vandals, the, 84 
Varnhem, Monastery of, 131 
Vasa, Gustavus, 220—229 
Vatican Council, 295 
Vesteras, Diet of, 220, 223 
Vienna, Congress of, 295 
Virginia Synod, the, 317 
Visigoths, the, 83 
Vladimir the Great, 99 
Voltaire, 251 
Vulgate, the, 66 

Waldenses, the, 147 
Waldus, Peter, 147 
Wallin, J. O., 257 
Walther, C. F. W., 320 
Washington, Catholic University 

of, 304 
Webb, Thomas, 304 
Wends, the, 100 
Wesley, Charles, 280 
Wesley, John, 278, 280, 304 
Wessel, John, 157 
Westphal, Joachim, 234 
Westphalia, Treaty of, 262 
White, William, 3i0 
Whitefield, George, 280, 304 
William III. of Orange, 269 
Williams, John, 342 
Williams, Robert, 305 
Williams, Roger, 306 
Willibrord, 93 
Winfrid, 93 

Wisconsin Synod, the, 321 
Wittenberg, disturbances at, 183 
Worms, Diet of, 178; Edict of, 

178, 193, 194 
Wycliffe, John, 149 

Xavier, Francis, 217 

Ziegenbalg, Bartholomew, 340 
Zinzendorf, Count, 276 
Ziska, John, 151 
Zwingli, Ulrich, 176, 199, 201 
Zwickau, prophets of, 183, 184 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: April 2005 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




014 089 066 2 



